A River Rat’s Guide to the Heritage of

the Upper St. Lawrence River

 

 

A preliminary Heritage River Research Document;

working towards a Canadian Heritage Rivers System designation for

the Upper St. Lawrence River

 

 

 

Prepared for

The Thousand Islands Area Residents' Association (TIARA)

Summer 2008

 

 

 

 

Aaron N. Day and Dan Kingsbury

 

 

 

 

Introduction

 

            The following write-ups have been completed to varying degrees.  Due to time constraints and the nature, size, and breadth of the project, not all aspects have been fully researched or described.  Some, however, have been researched to more than an adequate extent in order to complete the necessary write-up for the backgrounder.  As is the nature of history and its methodology, one can continuously research and write on a subject and never see an end.  For the backgrounder, because of the prodigious history of the Upper St. Lawrence, not all can be included, and those histories that are, must be limited and often quite brief in order to allow for an abundance in diverse stories.  The backgrounder for CHRS is not meant to be the definitive history of any subject, nor that of the river itself.  It is rather, a sampling of the variety. 

 

            As has been stated, many sections are simply a brief explanation of the intent of its design.  Accompanied with the framework, these short write-ups serve to orientate and serve the reader in any further research that may be necessary as well as the final write-up.  There are, however, some sections that have been thoroughly researched and composed.  These do not necessarily have to be the final product for the backgrounder, but they may certainly act as these, should TIARA wish to use them.  When the writing had begun, it was assumed that they would be too brief.  However, after further writing and consideration, it was realized that even the larger sections, such as the French on the Upper St. Lawrence, will most likely only receive a small amount of attention in order to include the various other topics.  The two sections that may need little to no other work are the “French on the Upper St. Lawrence” and “Conflicts”.  Others that have had extended write-ups (as opposed to brief explanation) are the “Loyalists” and “Fur Trade”.  It is, again, to the discretion of TIARA as to how these writings may be used, if they are used at all. 

 

            Finally, on a personal level, we the researchers have discovered a vibrant heritage worth telling.  It has been nothing but the greatest pleasure to be welcomed and immersed into a culture that has existed for centuries.  The end goal of having the Upper St. Lawrence River designated a Canadian Heritage River is a worthwhile and deserving aspiration and it is our sincerest hopes, and expectations, that this will be accomplished.  It has been our humble opportunity to help with this project and we will remain at the river’s service in any way, shape, or form, to help realize this objective and to maintain its proud cultural and natural heritage; may our work today serve to benefit generations to come.

 

Note on terminology: The Upper St. Lawrence River, as traditionally defined, extends from the headwaters at Kingston on Lake Ontario to the Lachine Rapids at Montréal.  However, due to political machinations, for the following descriptions the term Upper St. Lawrence refers to the section of the river between Lake Ontario and the Ontario-Québec provincial border.

 

Note on Images:  All images are located in the “Images” file in both the main file section as well as within the Queen’s Library folder. Images, such as those from Bell, Painters in a New Land, have varying copyrights.  Some of these images are, however, within the public domain as they are old enough for the copyright to have expired.  If they are still under legal copyright, permission will be needed.  That being stated, because the images are being used for non-profit purposes permission would most likely be uncomplicated, particularly because the bulk of the images will be coming from locations such as the National Gallery of Canada and Library and Archives of Canada.  The images presented in this write-up are a sample, and the locations of these images have not been contacted.  Further research is needed, and institutions must be contacted, to gather more images to accompany the textual history in the backgrounder for CHRS.  Regardless of whether an image is within the public domain or not, credit should be given to the holder of the image i.e. Thomas Davies, A View of Fort La Galette... 1760. National Gallery of Canada.

 

Note on Photographs: Unless otherwise stated, all photographs are those of the authors and TIARA.  Not all photographs have been linked to in the framework.  They are located in the “Photographs” folder and are then sub-divided by location on the river.  The types of photographs range from churches and historic homes to islands, marshes, and cottages. 

 

Part 1: Upper St. Lawrence Cultural Heritage

 

Timeline

 

Prehistory

 

 

Post-Contact

 

 

 

 

 

1. First Nations Heritage: Pre-Contact or Prehistory

 

            As the title suggests, the first section should focus on First Nations heritage as it was prior to European contact.  The research will consist primarily of archaeology and its interpretations and oral histories.  Elders of Akwesasne will be a key resource for the traditional history and knowledge of the Mohawk and greater Iroquois of the region.  This, however, does not include all groups that have occupied the area historically and other sources must be consulted in order to create a comprehensive picture of the river’s human occupation.  A number of sources have been identified and preliminary research has been done in order to establish a dating system and general understanding of the First Nations heritage on the river.  However, more research is needed, particularly for archaeological sites of which Parks Canada in Cornwall has knowledge, as well as the Museum of Civilization.  Private institutions such as Adams Heritage and CARF should also be consulted.

 

1.1 Archaeology

 

The Archaeology section focuses on prehistory that is understood through excavation and artefacts and its interpretation.  It is also often associated with oral history. 

 

Note on dating:  Dates vary by interpretation and fluctuate due to estimation based on carbon dating. These are merely generalizations and assume that each distinction occurred beyond its range and influenced a cultural evolution that is continuous and overlapping. Dates are according to J.V. Wright, Ontario Prehistory, 1972 and are therefore set by appearance of each phase in Ontario only.

 

1.1.1 Paleo-Indian Period (9000 – 5000 B.C.E.) (Clovis/Plano Culture)

 

            It is during the Paleo-Indian period, also known as the Plano or Clovis Culture, that the Upper St. Lawrence region shows human occupation.  Stone spear-points have been excavated at Lake St. Francis.  More research is suggested.

 

1.1.2 Laurentian Archaic (4,000 – 1,000 B.C.E.)

 

            For the Laurentian Archaic period, a culture specific to the St. Lawrence region, various sites have been excavated and studied.  The list provided in the Framework may not be exhaustive and further research is suggested, particularly through the Parks Canada location in Cornwall, which deals with the archaeology of the Upper St. Lawrence.

 

1.1.3 Woodland Period (1000 B.C.E – 1700 C.E.)

 

            The Woodland Period is divided into three sub-periods: Initial, Middle, and Terminal.  During the Initial, it was the Point Peninsula Culture group that frequented the Upper St. Lawrence.  A burial ground dating to c.1500 B.C.E. (before common era) has been discovered on Sheek (Sheik) Island.  The Middle witnessed the Pickering population (c. 1300) begin to make their way down the Upper St. Lawrence from the Quinte region.  An Indian camp with artefacts has been excavated in Augusta Township.  Finally, the Terminal period is the period that transitioned into the establishment of the cultures and tribes that the Europeans encountered on arrival and which are well known today.  Of particularly significance to this period was the St. Lawrence Iroquoians.  These people who dwelled in the Eastern portions of the Upper St. Lawrence (Fig.1) were a unique group, theorized to be a part of the Iroquois who Cartier encountered in 1535/36 at Stadacona and Hochelaga.  When Champlain founded Québec in 1608 however, these people had vanished, their villages in decay.  There are various theories about what happened to these people, the most accepted being that they were dispersed and adopted into Huron and Five Nations groups due to increased warfare in the 16th century.  The Woodland Period should involve the most in depth research and description for the backgrounder, particularly because much more is known of these groups than the formers.  It is also significant because it is this transition period that gave rise to the distinct Iroquois and Algonquian groups who competed in the 15th, 16th, 17th and even early 18th centuries for dominance of the Upper St. Lawrence.

 

            It should be noted that during the late Woodland period, particularly with the emergence of modern groups in the 15th and 16th centuries, that the Upper St. Lawrence became a buffer zone, unoccupied for centuries, used only as hunting ground and often shared between various groups.

 

Fig. 1 – From Adam’s Heritage.

 

 

1.1.4 The Thousand Islands

 

            The Thousand Islands, although occupied by the groups afore mentioned, has a unique human history.  Rather than occupied land, the islands served as summer campgrounds.  Groups who had spent the winter in small familial clusters in the deep woods emerged in the spring to gather in their greater tribes at the waters edge.  The summer was then spent camping on the islands, fishing the waters for eel and fish, gathering wild rice, weaving baskets from the marsh grass, and hunting and trapping the surrounding land.  At SLINP, studies have been done in the archaeology of the islands.  Two particular publications should be consulted further for a better understanding of their significance to First Nations heritage on the river.  The islands that were studied are Gordon and Squaw Islands.  Other islands are discussed in these Parks Canada reports as well.

Fig. 2 – William Henry Bartlett, Indian Scene on the St. Lawrence, c. 1840 (Musée de la civilisation, Séminaire de Québec Collection, 1993.16304).

 

1.2 Groups of the Upper St. Lawrence – the Buffer Zone

 

Note on Group Names:  Algonquian refers to the linguistic group of which the Algonquin and Mississauga are a part.  Iroquois is the general term applied to groups such as Mohawk, Onondaga and Seneca. 

 

Groups of the Upper St. Lawrence should focus on the various groups, as we know them, (i.e. Late/Terminal Woodland to present day) who used the river and occupied the region over the past 5 centuries.  Archaeology and oral history reveal that the Algonquian are considered the first inhabitants of the late Woodland period and of the modern First Nations groups.  There were also the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, most likely a culture that developed from the previous inhabitants of the Woodland and Point Peninsula cultures (Pickering).  It should be noted as well that, as the title suggests, the Upper St. Lawrence acted for a long time as a buffer zone between the often hostile Iroquois and Algonquian.  At times, an understanding was reached and Mohawk and Algonquin shared the region for hunting, retreating north and south to their traditional lands of occupations.  Other groups such as the Huron, Neutral, Petun, Mississauga, and Nipissing also have had some influence on and use of the river, particular with the arrival of the Europeans and the growth of the fur trade.

 

1.3 Traditional Oral History

 

This section, it is suggested, be reserved for oral histories garnered from interviews with Akwesasne elders.  It is extremely important to include First Nations traditional history; particular the traditional and still practiced uses of the river and it’s meaning to First Nations peoples.

1.3.1 Story of Creation

 

            There are various stories of creation, many of which involve common features such as the tortoise and the sky.  Two elements that may be discussed are the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) story of creation featuring the Skywoman and the tortoise and the other is Manitouana, the Algonquian word used for the Thousand Islands, which means “Garden of the Great Spirit”.  The river holds a dear and great importance to the First Nations groups who have used the waters for centuries.  This importance is realized in creation and spirit.

 

 

1.3.2 Origins

 

Origins may stand as an element, or it may be decided to have it integrated with the archaeology section.  The intent however, is to not have them divorced, but rather approached from two different perspectives.  The archaeology looks at material evidence of past cultures that have frequented the Upper St. Lawrence while origins in traditional oral history focuses on the First Nations understanding of how they came to occupy and use the Upper St. Lawrence.

 

1.4 Life on the River

 

            Life on the river should focus on traditional uses of the water, particularly in the summer, as this is when groups from the north and south would come to use the river.  Potential elements that require further research and which may be discussed are farming, particularly of the three sisters, hunting and trapping, fishing, and basket weaving.

 

1.5 Internecine Conflict

 

            Internecine Conflict discusses the conflicts that were waged between the modern tribes, separate from the conflicts that involved Europeans (although the Europeans and the fur trade had influenced many).  Conflicts that should be discussed include the 16th century wars between the Mohawk and Algonquin for dominance of the Upper St. Lawrence.  Following this, the Iroquois retreated south into what is now upstate New York.  The Algonquian peoples filled the vacant territory on the north shore of the Upper St. Lawrence.  A short peace endured in the 1620s, but war broke out again. These wars are often referred to as the Beaver Wars because the Mohawk were now retaliating against the Algonquin who had secured a trade-alliance with the French.  The now very hostile Iroquois, particularly the Mohawk, pushed the Algonquin out of the Upper St. Lawrence.  This push was followed by the full-scale war against the Huron that ended in their dispersal and near-extinction.  The Iroquois then became the dominant group of the Upper St. Lawrence for most of the 17th century, waging intermittent war against the French and their Algonquin allies.  It is for this reason that the fur trade was focused on the Ottawa River route to the west, rather than the now extremely dangerous Upper St. Lawrence.  However, in the late 1680s, a coalition of Ottawa, Mississauga and refugee Huron began attacking Iroquois settlements on and south of the St. Lawrence.  By the 1720s, the Mississauga had replaced the Iroquois on the Upper St. Lawrence and became the masters of the Thousand Islands.  The Iroquois maintained some control of the Upper St. Lawrence, but isolated to the south shore of the eastern portion.

 

 

 

2. Post-Contact

 

            Post-Contact focuses on the general period when Europeans began to penetrate and settle the Upper St. Lawrence.  It examines the relationships, other than politico-militaristic, that were established during this period.  Some examples of this include the early settlers – of French and Loyalists – and how land use changed along the Upper St. Lawrence.  Longhouses were constructed at Fort Frontenac in order to establish a strong relationship that fuelled the fur trade.  There were also towns established around missions and forts such as those at Oswegatchie/Fort La Présentation (Ogdensburg).  The Seven Nations of Canada Treaty (1796) land surrender in New York and other treaties on the Upper St. Lawrence should also be discussed. 

 

2.1 Akwesasne/St. Regis

 

            The history of the reserve of Akwesasne and St. Regis is also critical for the backgrounder.  Although this village was not established until 1747, its rich heritage is combined with the traditional history of the people who occupy the land.  More research is needed, particularly at Akwesasne with elders trained in the history of their people and of Akwesasne.  As the village changed over time, so to did the peoples’ activities, reflected in their various occupations.  Some interesting aspects suggested are the Mohawk as river-guides.  The Mohawk of Akwesasne had earned a name as great river pilots and navigators.  Many became involved in bootlegging and smuggling during prohibition.  They were also known for their competence as high steel bridge workers, helping construct some of the bridges that cross the river today. 

 

 

 

3. The French on the Upper St. Lawrence – Explorers, Missionaries and Forts

 

Although the French heritage on the Lower St. Lawrence River, or Fleuve St. Laurent, is still strong and vibrantly apparent, the Upper St. Lawrence region was not out of the reaches of New France.  The French had a significant, if not well-documented, presence on the Upper St. Lawrence River.  Aspects such as the history of Fort Frontenac, missionary work, and high-profile exploration have been recorded through such resources as journals, correspondences, and the seminal Jesuit Relations.  Yet, this represents but a fraction of the human presence on the Upper St. Lawrence in the 17th and 18th centuries.  It remains difficult to gauge how many coureurs de bois, the early and industrious, unlicensed fur traders escaped colonial life in Québec and set to the terra incognita to trade for valuable furs in Indian country.  Many were illiterate and most left little written traces of their lives.  Aside from a preserved clay calumet or metallic possessions lost to the water, virtually nothing remains of their lives.  Furthermore, in the 17th century, the Upper St. Lawrence was a dangerous route for even the most intrepid fur trader.  Rather than risk life and merchandise to the Mohawk who prowled the shores and canoed the waters of the Upper St. Lawrence, a safer route was established in allied Algonquin territory that utilized the Ottawa River. 

 

However, the value of maintaining some sort of physical presence on the Upper St. Lawrence was quickly recognized.  The Upper St. Lawrence, where it flows from Lake Ontario through the maze of islands and inlets was originally known as the Cataraqui before it had been surveyed and before the river, which now bears this name, was given this title.  It was in 1615 that Samuel de Champlain passed the headwaters of the St. Lawrence at Wolfe Island.  What is known of Champlain’s explorations and military expeditions in New France is garnered from his written accounts, Voyages.  In 1615, he accompanied Huron warriors across the Eastern edge of Lake Ontario, gazing upon the entrance to the St. Lawrence, heading for the Oneida River in order to attack an Onondaga fort in what is now up-state New York.  Champlain, injured in the foray, wintered in a Huron village, missing his opportunity to explore the Upper St. Lawrence. His return to Québec from Huron country, like his approach, was via the protected Ottawa route. 

 

Father Simon Le Moyne: It took almost 40 years for another known European to lay eyes on the guarded Upper St. Lawrence.  After portaging the Lachine Rapids, Jesuit missionary, Father Simon Le Moyne became the first recorded European to ascend the Upper St. Lawrence in 1654, which he recorded in his diary.  It was during a fragile and short-lived truce with the Iroquois that Le Moyne was sent as missionary and ambassador for peace to Iroquois country, paving the way for future missions among the Onondaga – in 1656, Fathers Joseph Chaumont and Claude Dablon came up the River to Iroquois territory under the banner of God and the French.  It was to this mission that a most famous trader and explorer, Pierre Esprit Radisson, accompanied Father Paul Ragueneau, in 1657.  It was at Sainte-Marie-de-Gannentaa (Onondaga) that Radisson is said to have helped the French missionaries escape an Iroquois plot to torture and kill them.  Although his stay was brief, Le Moyne travelled four more times between 1655 and 1659 into Mohawk territory.  The Mohawk feigned interest in order to lure the French away from the Onondaga, fearing an alliance that may harm the Iroquois trade with the Dutch.  Again, in 1668, Sulpician missionaries used the Upper St. Lawrence.  In this year Fathers Trouvé and Fenelon founded the mission at Quinte, a pivotal point for the French and their influence in the pays d’en haut or upper country and the establishment of Fort Frontenac.

 

Daniel de Rémy de Courcelle: Courcelle, Governor General of New France from 1665 to 1672, arrived one year after the Carignan-Salières regiment – sent by the King to protect New France – intent on crushing the Iroquois who had plagued the fledgling colony since its inception.  In 1670, Courcelle had a large flat boat built in Montreal that could traverse the rapids of the Upper St. Lawrence and carry larger loads than the canoe, which came to be known as the bateau.  He assembled a 56-man flotilla to ascend the Upper St. Lawrence to challenge the Iroquois and claim supremacy to this land.  The Iroquois at Lake Ontario were so impressed by his might and ability that they sued for peace and agreed to a truce with the French’s trade allies, the Algonquin.  Courcelle also surveyed the area and suggested to Colbert that the head of the St. Lawrence at Lake Ontario would be an ideal location for a military fort. 

 

Jean Deshayes:  Deshayes, by the time he was sent to New France in 1685, had already earned a name for himself as a skilled hyrdrographic surveyor.  He immediately accompanied Governor General Denonville to the trading post, Fort Frontenac, charting the route along the way.  His map of the Upper (Fig. 3) and Lower St. Lawrence was first published in 1702 and then again in 1715.  His study became the standard chart of the river until British surveys of the 1760s.  For his work, Deshayes was named Royal Hydrographer of New France.  Deshayes’ legacy continues today as he is credited for giving the Thousand Islands their name when he called the region, “lac des mille îles.”

 

 

Fig. 3 – Portion of Deshayes’ St. Lawrence, from Lake Ontario to Montréal, 1702 (Canada Maps Association, permission needed; see contact information).

 

René Robert, Cavelier de La Salle:  Of all the French explorers in North America, La Salle is among the most recognized.  As Frontenac’s protégé, he accompanied him up the St. Lawrence to Fort Frontenac and was granted the trading post and surrounding lands in seigneury, including Wolfe Island.  Being better known for his fatal journey down the Mississippi, La Salle also left his mark on the Upper St. Lawrence.   He not only left his mark at Fort Frontenac, expanding the structure, but he was also influential elsewhere as a result of his intrepid nature and frequent journeys.  One known site was the small trading post he established in 1669 at what would become Dickinson’s Landing, a cherished town of the Lost Villages.

Aaron Day

3.1 Fort Frontenac: Extending the Fur Trade

Perhaps the most enduring reminder of French presence on the Upper St. Lawrence is however, the remains of Fort Frontenac, at Kingston.  First built in 1673 by Governor General Louis de Buade Frontenac as Fort Cataraqui (later named Fort Frontenac by La Salle), a trading post, it acted not only to extend the fur trade into the hinterland and to control the fur-rich Great Lakes basin – hoping to intercept furs heading for the English and Dutch colonies – but it also stood as a reminder to the Iroquois of French presence in the area. 

 

Fig. 4 –Fort Frontenac at Cataraqui, 1685 (Archives nationales de France, Section Outre-Mer, Depot des fortifications des colonies).

 

Fort Frontenac’s existence was predicated on the good will of the Iroquois.  When war returned, galvanized by the conflict between the French and English for control of the fur trade, the fort was abandoned as a liable venture.  Until war was renewed in the 1680s however, a small hamlet grew around the walls of Fort Frontenac.  From such resources as correspondences, maps and plans, and the Relations of Father Hennepin, it is evident that those that garrisoned the trading post brought their families to settle the surrounding area.  Several habitant houses, an Indian village, a convent, and a Recollet Church grew about the young outpost of French expansionism.

 

Jacques-René de Brisay de Denonville: Governor General of New France from 1685 to 1689, Denonville entered New France much like Courcelle had, intent on removing the power of the Five Nations Iroquois that threatened New France’s access to the rich fur trade in the west.  He immediately set out for Fort Frontenac, perturbed by what he saw as a waste of and strain on valuable resources.  The Onondaga, learning of Denonville’s intentions, invited him to a peace conference at Fort Frontenac.  Denonville agreed to the meeting, but with a hidden, malicious agenda that would be unleashed in clandestine at the fort.  Secret orders and supplies were sent throughout the West to officers.  On 13 June 1687 an expedition of 832 colonial regulars, over 900 Canadian militiamen, and roughly 400 Indian allies set out from Montréal with Denonville at its head.  Capturing Iroquois scouts as they moved up the St. Lawrence, the expedition arrived at Fort Frontenac without the powerful Senecas of the West having news of the force.  Other Cayugas, Oneidas, and Neutral were seized near the fort, totalling some 50 to 60 men and 150 women.  Surrounding villages were burned, but Denonville did not encounter and defeat the sizeable Iroquois force for which he had hoped.  However, he was ordered to send 36 of the male prisoners to France where, to the reluctance of Denonville, they were put to work on the galleys.  Only 13 returned to North America. 

 

Although the captives were treated as prisoners of war, the failed safe return of the prisoners ignited a renewed and bloody conflict.  The garrison at Frontenac soon became prisoners in their own fort, constantly threatened by lurking Iroquois warriors who had burned the outer houses and gardens and killed their cattle.  On 24 September 1689, Denonville sent orders to have the fort destroyed and for the remaining soldiers to return to Montréal. 

 

When a shaky peace was restored in 1695, Count Frontenac, in his second appointment as Governor General of New France, returned to Fort Frontenac with 300 soldiers, 160 habitants, and 200 Indians.  A small garrison manned the fort for the next 50 years until war in the 1750s decided the fort’s fate, intrinsically tied to that of the French in Canada.  In 1758, Lieutenant-Colonel John Bradstreet, with a British force of 3,000 men, besieged the fort.  The French garrison of 110 men capitulated after three days of fighting.  Fort Frontenac was pillaged and then razed.  Until the War of 1812, when the fort was deemed obsolete, it served as a barracks for British forces and a stomping ground for passing fur traders (Fig. 5). 

Fig. 5 – James Peachey, The ruins of Fort Frontenac, June 1783 (from Bell, Painters in a New Land, copyright uncertain).

Little remains of the fort today, the majority of its ruins lay buried under the CFB Tête-de-Pont barracks, which now bears the name Fort Frontenac.  However, in 1982, the Cataraqui Archaeological Research Foundation (CARF) began excavations on the northwest bastion, Bastion St. Michel.  Various artefacts have been recovered from the site such as trade beads, a trade axe, and coarse red earthenware.  The north curtain wall, built by La Salle c. 1686, was also excavated.  CARF, located in Kingston, houses the artefacts taken from the site, along with detailed facsimiles of plans and maps of the fort. 

 

Fig. 6 – Remains of the Bastion St. Michel, Fort Frontenac (Photo: Aaron Day, May 2008).

 

Fort Frontenac was the largest and most significant of French presence on the Upper St. Lawrence, but it was not alone.  Most trading posts were built with wood and clay rather than limestone and mortar and thus time has withered away what may have still stood.  At the same time Fort Frontenac was being constructed, a small trading post and fortified depot was established at the present day site of Johnstown.  Fort La Galette, at the head of the Galop rapids, became a regular stop for traders and troops, including Count Frontenac, making their way up the St. Lawrence to Fort Frontenac and beyond.  In 1728, regular troops garrisoned the fort until it was abandoned during the French and Indian War.  Before making his final assault on Fort de Lévis, Amherst and his men camped at the abandoned fort in 1760.  La Galette appears on Deshayes map of the Upper St. Lawrence, surveyed in 1685 and published in 1702.  A watch post was also built on Île aux Chevreuils, now Carleton Island, south of Wolfe Island.  From the post, Amherst’s army was seen entering the Upper St. Lawrence, heralding the end of the France’s control of the river.

 

The French were not familiar with modern international boundaries such as the rift that separates Canadian from American sovereignty on the Upper St. Lawrence.  A year after a group of Catholic converted Onondagas established a village at Oswegatchie (modern Ogdensburg), Abbé François Picquet, sent from New France, established the mission Fort de la Présentation as both a place for conversion and as a foothold in the British-friendly Five Nations territory.  The fort attracted over 3,000 Iroquois to the French side and acted as a base of operations for French attacks into the Mohawk, Champlain, and Ohio Valleys.  Picquet and his men accompanied Montcalm in taking Oswego and Fort William Henry.  In 1759, Fort de la Présentation was evacuated to construct Fort de Lévis on Chimney Island.  It was here that the French would make their last stand on the Upper St. Lawrence. 

 

Just two years before this last battle would take place however, the French built a shipyard at Pointe au Baril, now Maitland, in 1758.  Dominance of the St. Lawrence was critical at any point during the years of contestation in North America and the French and Indian War was no different. Much of the French presence in Ontario is at the bottom of the St. Lawrence.  At the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes at Kingston, visitors are privy to a recent exhumation of a French warship’s bow from the Cataraqui harbour.  Many more remain lost and forgotten.  For Pointe au Baril, the two barques – French corvettes –  l’Outaouise and l’Iroquoise, were the pride and last defenders of water sovereignty for the French.

            Although France gave up control of her colonies in Canada with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the French influence on the Upper St. Lawrence endured.  Not only did such elements as topography remain with places like the Long Sault Rapids, the Galop, and Moulinette, but it is also estimated that over 17,000 French remained or migrated to Upper Canada at the end of the French and Indian War, immersing their culture with the arriving British Loyalists.  Many of these original Canadians would go own to form the best of the loggers and log-drivers that rode the many rapids from as far away as Garden Island to Montréal.

Aaron Day

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 7 – Pointe au Baril Cairn, Maitland (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. The Fur Trade

 

            The fur trade on the Upper St. Lawrence was not as intense as it was elsewhere due to reasons such as the Iroquois threat.  Furthermore, with the exit of the French from North America and the end of their control over the trade in what is now Ontario and Québec, the British takeover brought new areas of exploration and commerce.  As demonstrated above, it is difficult to gauge who came up the St. Lawrence and when due to the distinct clandestine nature of the early French fur traders.  There are, however, some lasting pieces of evidence such as topography.  For example, it is argued that Cardinal, a small town on the Upper St. Lawrence situated between Brockville and Cornwall, took its name from the voyageur landmark at the Galop rapids, Pointe au Cardinale.  As the men poled their bateaux passed the rapids, they may have stopped here to refill their pipes and break from the hard labour.  However, as the French crown faded from Canada, so too did the fur trade, and it was further west, via the Ottawa route to Lake Superior and beyond that the canoes of the voyageurs paddled.

Fig. 8 – William Henry Bartlett, from Canadian Scenery (location unknown).

 

Fur trade travel continued infrequently on the Upper St. Lawrence.  One trader of repute was Alexander Henry who had earned his stripes as a merchant supplier for the British troops during the French and Indian War.  In 1760, at the age of only 20, Henry was put in charge of three loaded supply bateaux and followed Amherst’s advance from Lake Ontario to Montréal, which included the battle of Fort Lévis.  After the war ended, he continued to sell goods to Fort William Augustus (formerly Fort Lévis) for a short period until January of 1761 when he left for Montréal becoming the first Englishmen to traverse the Long Sault Rapids by bateau. 

            As stated earlier, evidence is scant à propos the fur trade on the Upper St. Lawrence.  As the 18th century gave way to the 19th century, larger vessels such as the paddlers and steamships, as well as the timber barges, left little room for the fur-bearing bateau and canoes.  Furthermore, by the end of the 18th century, the business end of the fur trade was still in Montréal, but the operations and logistics used the Ottawa-Nipissing-French route to Lake Superior and to the West where the land had not yet been depleted of the already low-priced furs.  Thus, the height of the fur trade in the Upper St. Lawrence region was during the French regime, operated by men who left little traces, with the area’s wealth in furs tapped by the 1700s.

Aaron Day

 

 

5. Conflict and International Boundaries

 

            Section 5 will deal with post-contact conflict on the Upper St. Lawrence.  The river has not only been used as a wartime transportation highway, but it has also been witness to many conflicts, on the water and its shores.  Due to its size and importance to the history of the Upper St. Lawrence, the following is a chronological organization of the conflicts and disputes that affected the River’s political and social climate.

 

5.1 French-Iroquois Wars or Beaver Wars (1615 – 1660; 1676 – 1701)

 

            The French-Iroquois Wars, often referred to as the Beaver Wars, were a series of intermittent conflicts, mostly in the form of small guerrilla-like skirmishes and raids, taking place over most of the 17th century.  Sporadic Mohawk raids on French farms of the Lower St. Lawrence were the norm.  It is because of this unstable and fragile period for New France that little was done on the Upper St. Lawrence. Not until 1673 was any strong foothold made on the Upper St. Lawrence with the establishment of Fort Frontenac.  However, the fort was destroyed in 1687 after war had resumed. 

 

            The Beaver Wars, as the name suggests, were ostensibly wars for dominance over the fur trade.  The Iroquois, trade allies with the Dutch and English, fought with the French and their allies, the Algonquian and Huron, who controlled access to the network that brought rich furs from the west.  In order to augment their trade, their lands having all but been exhausted, the Iroquois sought to eliminate and replace the Huron and Algonquian and control the link to the west.  These wars effectively altered the social and political landscape of the Upper St. Lawrence. 

 

            The Iroquois began to return to the Upper St. Lawrence in the late 1620s and early 1630s, making war, first on the Algonquin, pushing them out of the territory, and then on the Huron, nearly wiping them out by 1650.  The Upper St. Lawrence, once again occupied by the Iroquois, became a dangerous route for the fur traders, and too far from the protection of Québec to be settled.  It was not until peace talks began at Île aux Chevreuils (Carleton Island) and were finalized with La Grande Paix de Montréal in 1701 that the Upper St. Lawrence became a peaceful place, for a short while at least.

Aaron Day

 

5.2 Seven Years’ War (1756 – 1763); Also French and Indians War (1754 – 1760)

 

            Although the Seven Years’ War began in 1756 in Europe, small-scale war had already erupted two years earlier in the interior of North America.  The Seven Years’ War in North America is often referred to as the French and Indian War, with New France capitulating in 1760, three years before the Treaty of Paris was concluded.  This long and gruelling conflict took place on many fronts.  On the Upper St. Lawrence, it was known as the Battle of the Thousand Islands.  As is the case with most sections, this is representative of the more notable incidents on the Upper St. Lawrence during the war.

 

            Battle of the Thousand Islands:  The British plan of attack on New France, designed by Pitt, was a multi-pronged offensive that aimed to eliminate the string of French forts in the interior and attack at Montréal and Québec via the Upper and Lower St. Lawrence.  Wolfe was to attack by sea – up the St. Lawrence by way of the Gulf – Prideaux was to attack Fort Niagara, and Commander-in-Chief Major-General Jeffrey Amherst was to attack Montréal by way of Lake Ontario.

 

The Battle of the Thousand Islands effectively began in 1758 after Lieutenant-Colonel Bradstreet besieged and captured Fort Frontenac between August 25th and 27th, reducing it to rubble, opening the entrance to the Upper St. Lawrence.  In the summer of 1760, Amherst set off from Oswego and entered the St. Lawrence.

 

Fort Lévis, Isle Royale:  On this small island, now called Chimney, once stood a wooden, four bastion square fort intended to guard the St. Lawrence and access to Montréal. After abandoning Fort de la Présentation in late 1759, the French constructed Fort Lévis (Fig. 9) and awaited Jeffrey Amherst and his British troops to advance.  Amherst sent an advance guard and on 7 August, the Onondaga and Mohawk, after passing the French watch post at Île aux Chevreuils entered the Lost Channel and were disoriented for several days in the maze of islands. 

 

Fig. 9 – Plan of Fort Lévis

 

The defiant French stand, under the command of Captain Pierre Pouchot, began with the naval skirmish and capture of the French corvette, l'Outaouaise on the 17 August 1760 (Fig. 10).  When the smoke cleared, Colonel George Williamson had seized the corvette.  Soon after, on the 19 of August the guns were turned on the small fort.  300 French soldiers resisted 12,000 British in a siege that lasted 5 days and nights.  On the 25th, the fort battered and the troops bruised, Pouchot sued for terms and control of the Upper St. Lawrence passed to the British.

Fig. 10 – Thomas Davies, A View of Fort La Galette, Indian Castle, and Taking a French Ship of War on the River St. Lawrence, by Four Boats of One Gun Each of the Royal Artillery Commanded by Captain Streachy, 1760. National Gallery of Canada.

 

The battle cost the British a significant amount of Amherst’s forces, and more were lost in the various rapids as they moved downriver.  However, this battle marked the end of the war on the Upper, and Montréal capitulated soon after.

Aaron Day

 

5.3 American Revolution

 

            The Upper St. Lawrence was not a significant theatre of war during the War of American Independence.  Although it saw a few skirmishes, there was little British presence and virtually no settlement that would bring American forces to these waters.  However, it was still vital that the British protect the Upper St. Lawrence in order to protect access to Québec.  In October of 1781, for example, two skirmishes were fought near present day Johnstown, amidst the ruins of La Galette.  There was also a sizeable fort built on Carleton Island.  Formerly Île aux Chevreuils, Carleton Island, south of Wolfe Island, was a popular campground for French explorers and traders.  Between 1778 and 1779, the British had Fort Haldimand built on the island to protect access to the St. Lawrence.  The fort was designed for 500 men with cliffs forming part of its walls. However, because of the geography of the war, the fort never saw conflict. The British also occupied Fort de la Présentation, naming it Fort Oswegatchie, from 1760 to 1796, making expeditions and raids from the fort into the Mohawk Valley.  The British did not relinquish the fort until 1796 as stipulated in Jay’s Treaty of 1794. 

Aaron Day

 

5.4 War of 1812

 

            The War of 1812 brought the importance of the Upper St. Lawrence to the fore. Upper Canada’s colonial government went to great lengths to ensure the sovereignty of the river from American incursions, especially following the intensive settlement of the Loyalists.  Furthermore, unlike the river in Lower Canada, the Upper St. Lawrence was now a water boundary and vital shipping highway that connected Upper Canada to Montréal and the Atlantic.

It is important to note that although many Americans were for war against the British and consequently Canada, eleven of New York’s fourteen representatives to Congress voted against war.  To the people of New York and their counterparts across the river, the War of 1812 might as well have been a civil war.  New York and Upper Canada had stronger ties with each other than with other provinces and states.  They were trading partners, as well as family members.  The invisible boundary that separated the U.S. from Canada was just that, invisible.  Marriages and migrations back and forth across the river tied these to regions together.  War was viewed with apprehension and disinterest and many would refuse to fight until attacked.

Aaron Day

 

5.4.1 The Forts

 

            Although not all saw conflict, many military fortifications were erected during and after the war along the river in order to establish a strong presence.  Between 1790 and 1792 a storehouse, guardhouse, and naval dockyard were built at Point Frederick.  During the War of 1812, Frederick was fortified with Fort Henry to protect the naval dockyard at Kingston as well as access to the Upper St. Lawrence.  Fort Wellington (Fig. 11) at Prescott was also built during the War of 1812 to act as a middle fortification between Kingston and Montréal and to counter the American garrison stationed at the remains of Fort de la Présentation at Ogdensburg. 

Fig. 11 – Anonymous, A militia encampment at Fort Wellington, Prescott, Ontario, c.1867 (from Bell, Painters in a New Land, copyright uncertain).

 

Each fort has its own unique history.  If space is permitted, further research and writing is suggested for a more complete history of the forts.  That being stated, their histories are also intertwined with the history of the War of 1812 on the Upper St. Lawrence and are therefore discussed as they relate to skirmishes and battles.

Aaron Day

 

5.4.2 The Blockhouses

 

            There were also blockhouses and redoubts built during the war in settlements that had no other defences.  More research is needed to give a more detailed history of the various structures such as the blockhouses built at Gananoque and Brockville, Blockhaus on Chimney Island, and the watch post on Grenadier Island.

 

5.4.3 Skirmishes and Battles

 

            The battles that make up the theatre of war on the Upper St. Lawrence could fill an immense monograph.  This section discusses the various events that took place on the river during war, but in brief detail.  As the backgrounder begins to take a more finished form it will be necessary to determine how much information need be provided to describe these events.

 

            For divers, the St. Lawrence River is a wonderland full of sunken ships from four centuries of naval and shipping activity.  Battles of the War of 1812 have added much to this experience with such events as the sinking of American schooners the Sophia and Island Packet by Ensign Dunham Jones of the Grenville Militia of Maitland.   Jones had spotted the ships off the shores of Brockville and mustered enough men to take the boats before they escaped across the river.  They were burnt and the rest of the American ships returned to Ogdensburg.

 

            There is also the naval skirmish that took place between the American Julia and British Earl of Moira and Duke of Gloucester.  In the summer of 1812, Commodore Hugh Earle of Kingston dispatched the Moira and Gloucester to blockade the American commercial vessels that had taken refuge at Ogdensburg.  The Sophia and Island Packet had already paid the price for running this gauntlet.  To break open this blockade, Lieutenant Woolsey of Sackets Harbour sent the schooner Julia armed with a long 32 pounder and two long 6 pounders.  After a brief skirmish near Brockville, the Julia was forced to take safe haven with the other ships at Ogdensburg. 

 

            Toussaint Island:  The skirmish that occurred on and around the island is one of the rare incidents of the war where women and children were caught in the line of fire.  On 16 September 1812, the Americans had caught wind that Fitzgibbons was to soon ascend the St. Lawrence with a fleet of bateaux.  Equipping a gunboat and a Durham boat, the American lay in wait at Toussaint Island near Prescott.  The single family that habited the island was taken captive, but not before one managed to escape and swim to shore, alerting the Dundas and Greenville Regiments.  Meeting the Americans on the water, a brief battle of gunboats ensued.  The Americans, no match for the size of the British fleet, quickly abandoned the Durham boat and escaped back to Ogdensburg. 

 

            Gananoque Raid:  As of yet, the war, in its infancy, had had little effect on the Upper St. Lawrence settlements, with the exception of small skirmishes on the war.  However, in July of 1812, American General Brown’s forces had been reinforced with the arrival of the swashbuckling soldier Captain Benjamin Forsyth.  Forsyth was charged with the task of performing a dashing raid on Gananoque to secure ammunition for the poorly supplied New York regiments and to strike fear in the hearts and minds of the Canadians.  Forsyth landed on the morning of 21 September 1812, his presence having only been detected a kilometre from the village.  The unprepared militia fired a volley, but as soon as Forsyth returned fire and charged, the British militia turned and fled, leaving the village open to plunder.  The troops set fire to several buildings and made off with 8 prisoners, several barrels of cartridges, flints and gunpowder.  That which he could not fit in the boats he had destroyed.  American officers also went searching for Colonel Joel Stone’s at his house.  Inside, they heard the creaking of floorboards above and fired a shot, hoping to have caught Stone.  However, Stone had fled the town with the others.  The stray shot had pierced the hip of Mrs. Stone who limped well into her 80s.  Forces at Kingston had not expected an attack on the village and because of this, a blockhouse was constructed in Gananoque in 1813.

 

            Brockville Raid:  At Christmas, command at Ogdensburg fell to Forsyth after Brown and his troops’ six-month obligation had ended.  No reinforcements were to come, for the time being anyways.  Unabated, Forsyth, learning of a rumour that American citizens were imprisoned in Brockville, planned a raid similar to Gananoque.  On 6 February 1813, Forsyth crossed the ice at Morristown in sleighs, meeting no opposition as he entered Brockville.  Taking control of the Court House Square, Forsyth entered the prison while the British commanding officer, local militia and garrison lay fast asleep in their beds.  All but one prisoner, who was interned for murder, were released, and several prominent Brockvillians were taken back across the river. 

 

            Battle of Ogdensburg:  A reprisal did not take long.  Lieutenant-Colonel Pearson at Prescott wanted an immediate response, but Governor-General Prevost was wary of attacking the Americans, particularly detesting the hit-and-run tactics that were becoming common on the Upper St. Lawrence.  He did however, allow Lieutenant-Colonel “Red George” MacDonell to demonstrate before the garrison at Ogdensburg as a distraction for Prevost who was travelling upriver to Kingston with his staff.  Two deserters from Fort Wellington had alerted the Americans of Prevost’s sojourn at the fort.  Prevost would be a high prize if he were taken by the Americans. 

 

            On 22 February 1813, MacDonell, eager for remonstration against the Americans and before Prevost could reconsider the plan, marched 800 men onto the ice to feign military drills.  It was customary for MacDonell to drill his men on the ice and so the men on watch at Ogdensburg paid little interest.  Not until MacDonell and his men were halfway across the river did the Americans turn their unconcern to open fire.  Captain John Jenkins and the right column were soon penned down by heavy fire coming from the old fort (la Présentation) “stone garrison” but, unimpeded, MacDonell swept the American left flank, taking an American battery.  Seeing this, Forsyth quickly realized the gravity of the attack and fled with his remaining forces to Black Lake, 8 miles away. 

            The battle of Ogdensburg was a decisive victory for Canada on the river.  Losing their most important harbour at Ogdensburg, the Americans now had no choice but to make Sackets Harbour on Lake Ontario their naval base of operations in the area, effectively losing control of the Upper St. Lawrence.  It was not long after peace returned to this area that, even while the two nations were at war, merchants and friends safely crossed the river to do business.    

 

Fig. 12 – MacDonell Leading attack on Ogdensburg. Fort

Wellington Display, Parks Canada.

 

British supply lines on the Upper St. Lawrence were not completely free from molestation, however.  In July of 1813, several privateers were given Letters of Marque and fitted the Neptune and Fox.  They hid amongst the Thousand Islands for British convoys, seizing an opportunity that present itself when their two lookout boats informed them that a supply convoy and its escort, the gunboat Spitfire, were docked at Simmonds Landing.  Moving quickly, the American privateers surprised the British and only a few escaped. 

 

            Lieutenant Scott of the Royal Navy at Kingston swiftly assembled a search party and before long, had located and cornered the privateers at Cranberry Creek near Wolfe Island.  However, as the British gunboats moved slowly up the creek, they encountered a blockade of felled trees.   Hiding in ambush in the surrounding bushes, the privateers opened fire.  The British were forced to flee once again. 

 

            There were other minor, and sometimes humorous, incidents that occurred during the summer months of 1813.  On August 23, Reuben Sherwood and his Lieutenant, Peter Grant, happened upon some American militiamen building a blockhouse at Cape Vincent.  In a spontaneous bluff, Sherwood convinced the men that they were scouts of an attacking British army.  With the Americans scared and confused, Sherwood took two officers captive who were later exchanged for two British officers.  Another attempted raid occurred in October when an American force crossed the river hoping to steal provisions at Mariatown but were ambushed and sent fleeing back across the river.

 

            Battle of Crysler’s Farm:  The most significant event of the war on the Upper St. Lawrence was already under way on 17 October 1813.  Known as the St. Lawrence Campaign, it was an American plan devised by Secretary of War John Armstrong to take Montréal in a two-pronged attack, one advancing north from Lake Champlain, which resulted in the Battle of Chateauguay, and one from the west along the St. Lawrence led by General George Wilkinson.  Wilkinson’s forces left Sackets Harbour to camp on Wolfe Island (then known as Grenadier) on the evening of 17 October.  It took several weeks to muster his forces, but by 5 November, the main body of Wilkinson’s army had begun moving down the river.  Wilkinson was with the main force, his boat being piloted by a then unknown Canadian defector, William Johnston.  The British at Kingston soon realized that the attack they had been waiting for was not coming for them at all.

 

            British gunboats under Commander William Mulcaster tenaciously pursued the American armada and on the evening of 4 November he ordered a bombardment of Wilkinson’s encampment at French Creek (present day Clayton).  Severely outnumbered, Mulcaster was forced to retreat after a brief foray with American artillerymen. 

 

            The armada continued and late on 7 November, the bulk of Wilkinson’s forces bypassed Fort Wellington at Prescott.  Wilkinson had his men disembark upstream and march around Ogdensburg while under the cover of darkness Brigadier General Jacob Brown was to lead the near vacant American vessels past the guns of Fort Wellington.  The light of the moon gave Brown’s presence away, but inaccurate British and Canadian fire from the fort left the ships virtually unscathed, although many casualties were suffered.

 

            Learning that the British had dispatched a corps of observation under Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Morrison, Wilkinson established an advance guard under Colonel Alexander Macomb and a battalion under Forsyth. A skirmish soon took place at Hoople’s Creek on 10 November, a minor foray that would soon become a full battle.  The rest were made a rearguard under Brigadier General John Boyd, encamped in the woods near Wilkinson’s headquarters at Cook’s Tavern. By this time however, a corps of 650 men from Kingston had set out on 8 November, reinforced at Prescott to make 900, and had caught up with Boyd’s rearguard.  Morrison’s men spent the night encamped at Crysler’s Farm, just west of Wilkinson and Boyd.

Fig. 13 – Adam Sheriff Scott, central section of Climax of the Action at Crysler’s Farm. Battle of Crysler’s Farm Visitor Centre, Crysler Park.

Fig. 14 (below) – Battle of Crysler’s Farm Re-enactment. Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

The 11 November was a cold and drizzly day and the battle that ensued was just as grizzly. Fighting in the open fields turned the land to muck as guns were hauled through ravines and mud.  In the woods, skirmishes turned into guerrilla-like combat as each force attempted to flank the other.  However, by about half past four, Morrison’s forces had held back the American army led by Boyd and under dusk the Americans retreated.  Although reports vary, it is estimated that the British lost 31 lives that day with 148 wounded and 13 missing.  Morrison reported some 120 Americans were taken prisoner, most wounded.  General Boyd reported for the Americans, 102 killed, 237 wounded, and 100 missing.

 

            It was essentially a rear guard battle for the Americans who were unable to put all of their separated forces on the field – General Brown and his advance guard had already run the rapids to Cornwall.  Wilkinson was forced to throw more men than he wished into the battle, but Morrison’s regulars held fast.  With the unexpected battle of Crysler’s Farm, along with the defeat of General Hampton and the American’s at Chateauguay on 25 October, Wilkinson’s council of war ended the St. Lawrence campaign days after the battle.  The war continued into 1814, but the battle of Crysler’s farm effectively ended all combat on the Upper St. Lawrence.  Peace returned to the waters until a different kind of enemy would take up arms in 1838.

Aaron Day

 

5.5 1837-38 Rebellion or Patriot’s War

 

            The Upper Canada Rebellion was fought in various regions across Upper Canada, beginning with the first skirmish on 4 December 1837 on Yonge Street.  In an almost comical transpiration, William Lyon Mackenzie, leader of the radical Reformers in Toronto, began a march from Montgomery’s Tavern that met with a force of 1000 men under Colonel James Fitzgibbon.  After three days of skirmishing, the poorly armed and untrained rebels were quickly dispersed, their only trained soldier being killed in the brief conflict.  Mackenzie fled with supporters to Navy Island to establish a provisional government for the “Republic of Upper Canada”.  With the support of Americans, the rebels sunk the Caroline, but the rebels were soon thwarted and dispersed, Mackenzie taking exile in the U.S.  There was also a small uprising in the London area led by Duncombe.  This too was quickly quelled.

 

Although the political leadership of the rebellion was brought to a quick end, those who fled to the U.S. found eager supporters to continue their cause to have Canada “liberated” from the yokes of the British monarchy. The Upper Canada Rebellion was ostensibly fought over political reform in the colony.  The radical Reformers, led by Mackenzie, wished for an elected Executive Council that was responsible to the Legislative Council rather than to the Governor.  They also wanted an end to the peer patronage of the Family Compact.  Those that continued the fight on the Upper St. Lawrence in 1838 referred to themselves “Patriots”. 

 

            The Patriots who fled to the U.S. joined with the Hunters’ Lodge groups, Americans who had pledged to the cause of “liberating” Canada from what they thought was British oppression, a view that held little foundation in reality.  What they hunted were monarchists.  21 Lodges had been established on the south shore of the St. Lawrence and Watertown alone boasted 1900 members.  Few Americas were anxious to see another war however, and the Lodge acted clandestinely, with the U.S. government hoping to stay out of the affair with the adoption of President Van Buren’s Neutrality Act in 1838.  With the Rideau Canal just recently completed, the establishment of the boundary line in the Upper St. Lawrence, and a hardening stance between Loyalists and Republicans on the north shore of the Upper St. Lawrence, the two sides seemed at odds with one another again. 

 

            Hickory Island Farce:  The Rebels were determined to invade Canada.  Led by Van Rensselaer, an adventurer and son of an 1812 veteran, and Bill Johnston, they set up a base in Canadian waters on Hickory Island, just west of Grindstone on 22 February 1838.  However, of the estimated force of 1,500 to 2,500 men that the Patriots thought they had, only roughly 200 of this “army” made their way to Hickory Island and when the time came to have these men mustered to attack Kingston, only 83 appeared.  By the time of the third roll call, only 35 men were prepared to attack.  To complicate the situation, alcohol was added to the mix and, had they even attempted an attack, the Canadian shore had already been alerted of the plan.  Elizabeth Barnett, a teacher in Gananoque, had overheard the plans to attack Gananoque and then Kingston while visiting in New York.  Making the journey across the ice – legend tells the story of a Secordesque adventure – she warned Gananoque and preparations were made for the attack that never came.  The militia was mustered in Gananoque and the blockhouse brought up to snuff.  Kingston, already savvy of rumours of the organization of “Patriots” in Clayton and confirmed by the word of Barnett, was made ready with the steamer Dolphin on patrol, the guns armed at Fort Henry, and pickets and patrols stationed about the city. The Patriots, now near frozen on the small island in the cold February night, abandoned their plans.

            Aikin’s Inn:  If the Rebels were to be at all successful, support was needed from the local populace along the Canadian shore.  Not only were the people opposed to renewed conflict, but the Rebel cause was further abated after a skirmish that bore closer resemblance to banditry and thugs than war and rebels.  At Aikin’s Inn, near Prescott, a group of Americans, some who had been on Hickory Island, showed up to buy a horse.  After being refused service at the inn, they turned to starting a brawl with British Dragoons and the owner.  Aikins was beaten badly by the miscreants and had his two wall-mounted swords stolen.

 

            Sinking of the Robert Peel:  The next skirmish of the Patriot’s War on the Upper St. Lawrence came late on the night of 29 May 1838.  An underground group had been organized called the Canadian Refugee Relief Association whose goal was to cause havoc between the U.S. and Britain.  Selected for the first task was Bill Johnston who had already gathered a band of ruffians to pirate the waters of the Thousand Islands.  The Sir Robert Peel, a steamship owned by a group of wealthy Brockvillians had docked at McDonnel’s wharf on the south side of Wells Island.  In the cover of darkness, Johnston and his men, dressed and painted like Indians, boarded the dormant ship, brandishing their arms and rallying their cause with the cry of “remember the Caroline.”  The crew and passengers were herded to the shore and Johnston and his men steered the ship into the river.  However, Johnston had no experience piloting a steam vessel and quickly ran it on a shoal.  Unable to dislodge the vessel, it was soon set to the torch and the men escaped in an unorganized fashion. 

 

            The St. Lawrence was put on high alert with detachments being formed.  Tensions rose between the Americans and Canadians.  Johnston walked the streets of Clayton with little fear of the reward on his head, leaving Canadians bitter over American concerns with the matter.  On 10 June 1838, Johnston flaunted his position by issuing a proclamation published in several newspapers:

 

I, William Johnston, a native-born citizen of Upper Canada, certify that I hold a commission in the Patriot Service of Upper Canada as Commander-in-Chief of the naval force and flotilla. I commanded the expedition that captured and destroyed the steamer, the Sir Robert Peel. The men under my command in that expedition were nearly all natural born English subjects; the exceptions were volunteers for the expedition.

 

My headquarters were on an island in the St. Lawrence, without the jurisdiction of the United States, at a place named by me Fort Wallace. I am well acquainted with the boundary line and know which of the islands do, and which do not, belong to the United States; and in the selection of the island I wished to be positive and not locate within the jurisdiction of the Commissioners under the sixth article of Treaty of Ghent, done at Utica, in the state of New York, 13th June, 1822. I know the number of the island, and by that decision it was British territory.

 

I yet hold possession of that station, and we also occupy a station some twenty or more miles from the boundary line of the United States, in what was Her Majesty's dominions until it was occupied by us. I act under orders. The object of my movements is the independence of the Canadas. I am not at war with the commerce or property of the people of the United States.

Signed this tenth day of June, in the year of our Lord, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty-Eight.

(From George Stanley, Conflicts and Social Notes, 1000 Islands.http://members.tripod.com/~Oliver_Kilian/1000islands/IsIn7-Wars/wars.htm#I%20-%20Hickory%20Island

 

            Battle of the Windmill:  The St. Lawrence was relatively quiet for the rest of the summer, although at this time the Hunters Lodges began to formulate their plans of attack.  In early November, members began to organize at various points along the river in preparation for the planned Prescott operation.  Various contingents were formed of which one was led by Nils Gustav von Schoultz (Fig.15), soon to be commander of the forces at the Windmill, who claimed to be a Polish-Swede, although many contend he was an American liar.  On 11 November, the American steamer the United States entered the St. Lawrence, carrying “Hunters” from Salina and Sachet’s Harbour, picking up the schooners Charlotte of Toronto and Charlotte of Oswego, commanded by Johnston.

 

The plan was for the schooners to land at the Prescott wharf and take Fort Wellington in a blitz.  However, spies had infiltrated the Hunters Lodge and the Canadian shore was ready for the attack.  Under the cover of night the two schooners missed their target and ran aground on the second attempt.  A scow from Ogdensburg picked up the men and their guns.  The schooners were released and floated downstream, landing approximately two kilometres away at the site of a large stone windmill.  This site would have to do.  Only 250 men had landed of what had supposed to be a sizeable force.  Johnston and 500 men expected from Ogdensburg never made it to join the battle. 

 

Fig. 15 – Nils Von Schoultz (Archives of Ontario).    

 

At Prescott, the regular garrison, the 83rd Regiment, and militia contingents from Grenville, Dundas, and Glengarry as well as Prescott and Brockville had been mustered.  The Queen Victoria, Cobourg, and the Experiment were sent to blockade any further reinforcements from across the river.  The invaders took refuge in the mill, a veritable fortress for the coming battle.  Escape and supply routes were cut-off however, and the already hungry rebels faced a full-scale siege on 13 November.

 

            Roughly 600 regulars and militia, led by Colonel Young, launched a frontal assault on the rebel stronghold.  However, sharp shooters from the windmill picked off the attacking British and Canadians forcing them to retreat to cover.  The battle continued like this until the afternoon of the 16th when a new bombardment began.  After the spirits of the invaders had been crushed under the weight of the shelling, the now 1,000 strong British quickly finished the battle.  Lack of food, water, and medical supplies, and an unsympathetic local people forced Von Schoulz and the Rebels in the windmill to capitulate.  This laudable attempt at an invasion of Upper Canada may have been successful, but the Hunters’ and Patriots’ bombastic assumptions that the locals would flock to their Republican banner proved their ignorance of the sentiments of the Canadian people.

     

Fig. 16 – The Battle of the Windmill, 13 November 1838 – view from the American side of the river (Toronto Reference Library, from Parks Canada).

 

13 British and Canadian soldiers were killed and 78 wounded.  Of the “Hunters” an estimated 50 were killed and seventeen wounded.  Between 140 and 159 became prisoners, 11 were executed, including Von Schoultz, and 60 were sent to Van Dieman’s Land (Australia) to work in the penal colony.  The rest (86), most of home were barely men, were condemned but soon after pardoned, Lord Durham hoping that his clemency would end the animosity.

 

 Although the Patriot’s War was effectively over, the enmity took time to diminish.  American vessels were still looked at with suspicion, and the United States was fired upon on 14 April 1839, luckily sustaining no damage.  Zeal however, was dwindling for the Patriots’ cause in the U.S.  The waters soon returned to their friendly calm.

Aaron Day

 

5.6 Fenian Alert, 1866 - 1870

 

Between 1866 and 1870, the Irish-American group known as the Fenians threatened a Canadian incursion.  Their plan was to invade Canada and then ransom the land to Great Britain for Irish sovereignty in Ireland.  Although the attacks that did take place were in Québec and the Eastern colonies and were easily repulsed by Canadian militia and regulars, the threat had renewed fears along the Upper St. Lawrence.  This is a small section and its merit may prove of little worth for this backgrounder.  Further research will be required.

 

5.7 Gunboats

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This section will require further research.  It is intended to focus on the rich heritage of gunboats that have patrolled and battled on the Upper St. Lawrence over the past 4 centuries.  The Library at SLINP has two excellent sources on the gunboats, including a display at Mallorytown Landing.  There is also the H.M.S. St. Lawrence, which was built at the end of the War of 1812, but was known as the ship that ended the war on the water without firing a shot.

 

 

 

Fig. 17 – British gunboat on the St. Lawrence.

 

5.8 Boundaries

Fig. 18 – Murney Tower, Kingston.  Constructed during the Oregon Crisis, 1848 (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

Many treaties have been formed because of the Upper St. Lawrence.  Ask any river rat however, and they’ll laugh at the imaginary line that attempts to separate them from a country that was intrinsically linked to their identity and heritage.  The first major treaty was that which ended the War of 1812, the Treaty of Ghent, and was soon followed by the Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1818.  In 1846, the Oregon Crisis – the threat of conflict over the international boundary in the West which was accompanied by the American slogan, “54-40 or Fight!” – instigated the creation of the Martello Towers along the shoreline of the Upper St. Lawrence such as Murney Tower and Fort Frederick in Kingston.  There have also been treaties of reciprocity and navigation, as well as the seminal Boundary Waters Treaty, 1909, that set an international precedent for waterways as an international boundary between friendly nations.  More research and writing will better explain the treaties and their importance as well as the impact they have had on the Upper St. Lawrence.

 

 

 

6. United Empire Loyalists, 1784

 

It has been argued that the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) created not one, but two nations.   This is certainly the case for what was to become the English-speaking province of Upper Canada, established in the Constitutional Act of 1791.  Whether they fled persecution for loyalty to the Crown, or chased the opportunity of land and commerce, the United Empire Loyalists who left the United States, nee the Thirteen Colonies endured all the hardships of establishing a new life in an untamed land.   However, their first stop was in Montréal in makeshift barracks as they waited to move up the St. Lawrence.  For this to be done, treaties and surveys were needed.  The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had designated all lands west of the Appalachian Mountains “Indian Hunting Grounds”, including the Upper St. Lawrence region.

 

In 1783, the main barrier to land title along the northern shore of the Upper St. Lawrence were the rights of the Mississauga.  By the 1720s, the Mississauga had filled the buffer zone that had been established along the St. Lawrence in the Thousand Islands as the Algonquin retreated north and the Iroquois moved south.  A Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada plaque outside the new Fort Frontenac barracks in Kingston reads:

 

In October 1783, at Carleton Island near here, Captain William Redford Crawford of the King’s Royal Regiment of New York met with local Mississauga Indians led by the elderly Mynass.  Crawford, acting for the British government, purchased from the Mississaugas for some clothing, ammunition and coloured cloth a large tract of land east of the Bay of Quinte.  The land was subsequently settled by United Empire Loyalists and Britain’s Indian allies who had been forced to leave their homes in the United States.

 

Accompanying spring of 1784 came the Loyalists in droves from Montréal on flotillas of bateaux.  With what little they had managed to escape from the U.S., they arrived to re-establish their lives in a new and feral land.  Prior to their arrival, Sir Frederick Haldimand, Governor of Québec, had the north shore of the Upper St. Lawrence surveyed and drawn up.  Under the leadership of Sir John Johnson who was charged with allotting the land, and the Deputy Surveyor, Captain Justus Sherwood, the Loyalists were granted property gratis.  Landing at such sites as New Oswegatchie and the Johnstown base camp, Loyalists drew lots and were placed in townships according to ethnic background (i.e. English, Scottish, Dutch) and regiment.                                                                       Fig. 19 – Sir John Johnson (Parks Canada).

 

Fig. 20 – James Peachey, Encampment of the Loyalists at Johnston, a New Settlement on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, June 6, 1784 (from Bell, Painters in a New Land, copyright uncertain) (also in Ontario Archives).

 

The Loyalists immediately set to clearing the land.  Constructing small working log shanties, they hewed at the rich virgin forests until enough land was cleared for farming (Fig. 21).  From the shanty, they eventually upgraded to a larger structure, many opting for the vernacular loyalist stone dwellings brought from the northern colonies.  Soon mills would appear, commerce and trade would be established, timber would flow out, and demands for a system of government would rise, culminating in the Constitution of 1791.

 

Fig. 21 – Poultry House and Pig Pen, plaque: This small log farm building came from near Cataraqui in the Kingston area, approximately 140 kilometres west of here.  Built by the Loyalist Harpell family in 1795, it is the sort of basic log home, still with its stone chimney, first erected by those who occupied and settled Crown land.  Such early homes were often converted to animal shelters as subsequent generations of families prospered and built better residences. From Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

Historians, many of whom reside and actively contribute to the heritage of the Upper St. Lawrence, have written on the United Empire Loyalists.  This passage is but a brief summary of how they came to Upper Canada.  Further research is suggested in order to paint a picture of detail and substance in this significant section on the Loyalists, the backbone of Euro-Canadian culture on the Upper St. Lawrence.

Aaron Day

 

 

 

 

7. Life on the River: From Adventure and Danger to Common Place and Customary

 

In this section of the comprehensive heritage backgrounder, we focus on the social setting of the Upper St. Lawrence, particularly in the 19th and 20th centuries.  As the section’s elements suggest, this portion is for the obscure, the curious, and the customary.  Social history, the foundation of heritage, is often overlooked or overshadowed by the epic stories and political meanderings that describe a narrative history.  As much of this backgrounder focuses on the conflicts, the industry and commerce, and the politics of the Upper St. Lawrence, this section concentrates on the social atmosphere of the Upper St. Lawrence that was not necessarily particular to a town or region.  It brings to the fore the legends and stories, the livelihoods, and the lifestyle whose heritage permeates the social fabric of the people who live on the river today.

 

It must be noted that, although at times the backgrounder yarns a chronological history, it often waivers from this approach, particularly when discussing the social heritage that does not necessarily reflect a timeline or period. 

Aaron Day

 

7.1 The St. Lawrence Scene

     

The Upper St. Lawrence is first and foremost a home.  However, in most instances, this home’s existence has both served and been predicated on the river as a highway of shipping.  From bateau to the memorable steamships, the river has been used both out of necessity and convenience in a commerce that has allowed towns and cities to thrive on the river.  As a result, these many towns became the stomping grounds of the sailor and the transient.  Hotels and taverns were commonplace on the ubiquitous  “Water Street”.  Here was the dank, bottle-infested underbelly of the shipping world.  Loath to those with a Victorian sense of propriety, the tavern was no place after dark for self-respecting member of the community.  But, for the ephemeral visit, it was precisely what many sought.  Places such as Cook’s Tavern, moved to and restored at Upper Canada Village, and the Stage Coach Inn at Morrisburg were the perfect haunt for the traveller and mariner.

The tavern, cheaper than the local inn, was also the ideal place for the flocks of immigrants moving west and north to lay their head en route.  However, horrendous living conditions and tight proximity on the Atlantic crossing was a breeding ground for disease.  Infamous islands such as Grosse Île in the Lower St. Lawrence acted as quarantine for the newly arrived immigrants.      

 

Fig. 22 – Cook’s Tavern – Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

The Upper St. Lawrence is not without its own history of epidemic and quarantine.  Now more of a peninsula and called Blockhouse Island, the park jutting out from the marina in Brockville was once called Refugee Island and was Brockville’s solution to the influx of immigrants carrying cholera.  In 1832, the cholera epidemic reached the Upper St. Lawrence, brought aboard crammed immigrant ships.  Towns like Brockville that effectively established a system of quarantine faired better than those who unwittingly offered shelter to the newly arrived.  In places like Lancaster, immigrant sheds or pest houses were erected to isolate and quarantine the sickly newcomers.

 

Town to town, however, the Upper St. Lawrence was a thriving, healthy, and friendly community.  As will be discussed in greater detail in the Settlement Heritage section, town life was tight-knit.  Families depended upon one another; whether it was hauling out ice from the canal in winter, or clearing land for a field, it was this community living that connected the people in the towns and villages with one another and with the neighbouring hamlets.  As much as the region was a farming community, it was most importantly a waterfront community.  The River was the basis for communication, travel, and recreation.  It was to the wharf that the farmers would bring their wheat and potash, and it was on the water that children would meet during the dog days of summer to swim in the canals and wave to the ships passing by.  It was under the canopy of the bandstands during the weekend dance where true love blossomed, under the soft sound of the lapping river, echoing in the warm night breeze.  This was, and still is, the Upper St. Lawrence scene.

Aaron Day

 

7.2 Legends

 

 

The Upper St. Lawrence is also replete with legends, folklore, and obscure histories.  Many of these stories come from Indian lore and myth that influence the quirky tales that are still told today.  Elusive rock paintings near Brockville are said to honour and commemorate a great chief and his companions who were lost in a storm.  While escorting two captured English officers to Montréal, a tempest moved in.  To lighten their load, the officers were cast into the river.  It was however, to no avail, and the great chief was sent to a watery grave.  Others reflect the settlers’ desire for excitement and danger. Chimney Island, witness to the last stand of the French on the St. Lawrence before the capitulation of Montréal, was also rumoured to contain buried gold.  Old Man’s Island near Brockville was the home to a number of hermits, one, a self-proclaimed Colonel and prophet, Elisha Buell, could be heard heralding the return of Jesus Christ.

 

The Lost Channel:  Another well-known story is that of the Lost Channel, the water route between Georgina and Constance Islands off of Ivy Lea.  Here the waters reach a narrow point at Lake of the Isles and an underwater waterfall, the effective sill, forces a fast current through the islands.  It was here on 7 August 1760, near the end of the French and Indian War, prior to the siege of Fort Lévis, that the British Onondaga and Mohawk pursued a French flotilla into the hidden channel.  Losing sight of the French boats, the two British corvettes forged ahead only to be ambushed by the waiting French.  Following the skirmish, the British commander sent a dispatch boat under Coxswain Terry to search for the French in the channel.  Although the Onondaga and Mohawk eventually made their way out of the maze of islands, Coxswain Terry’s vanguard was never seen or heard of again.

Fig. 23 – Lost Channel and Ivy Lea Bridge seen from the Skydeck (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

The Maple Island Murder:  There is also the case of the Maple Island Murder, a mystery of money, assassination, and revenge.  In the summer of 1865, a stranger with a southern accent rented a home on Maple Island.  Living as a hermit, he was rarely seen, only coming to shore for provisions.  One evening, a fire was seen coming from the island, but when the hermit was not seen in town the next morning nor for several days thereafter, some fishermen went to the island to investigate.  The unknown man was found dead, his throat sliced and three crosses cut in a triangle on his chest.  The charred home showed signs of a desperate struggle.  As the story goes, the hermit was John Payne, a member of the Knights of the Blue Gauntlet, the group speculated to be behind the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.  When plans to have other cabinet members murdered were foiled, Payne and another member fled north to Canada where they were given the money, which was supposed to be divided among other members, and disappeared.  Around the time of the murder, six unsavoury strangers were seen in Gananoque, and it is theorized that they had come for revenge against the man who had absconded with their share of the spoils.

Aaron Day

 

7.3 Pirates of the St. Lawrence

 

The St. Lawrence was also home to its very own pirates.  These were not the swashbuckling sea bandits of the Caribbean and Indian Oceans, but rather the finest navigators of the labyrinthine islands who made these waters and inlets safe-haven for their booty and necks. 

 

 

Fig. 24 – Pirate William “Bill” Johnston.

William “Bill” Johnston:  Although his most well known exploits was as “Admiral of the Patriot Navy” during the Upper Canada Rebellion (see 5.5), so-called Pirate Bill Johnston made a living out of his unmatched knowledge of the Thousand Islands.  Johnston lived in Kingston, working as a merchant and smuggler before the War of 1812.  Dodging conscription, Bill was eventually caught by the Northumberland Militia and had his goods confiscated.  After demands for reimbursement were ignored, Johnston swore revenge, putting to use his piloting experience from smuggling for the Americans.  Acting as a spy, Johnston formed a small gang with a swift 6-oare boat, the Ridgeley.  Armed with six pistols, a rifle, and a Bowie knife, Johnston and his gang took to raiding and stealing on the Canadian side and escaping across the water to the American islands.

 

Following the war, Johnston moved to French Creek, N.Y. and continued working as a merchant and smuggler, his four sons and daughter, Kate, joining his gang.  It was Kate, knowing the islands well, who would bring supplies to her father whenever he was in hiding. 

 

After sinking the Robert Peel in 1838, it is said that Johnston then hid on an island near Wellesley Island in a cave known as “The Devil’s Oven”.  Here he stayed for 3 days as his daughter brought him food regularly.  After abandoning the “Patriots” at the Battle of the Windmill, Bill was caught by American forces and imprisoned.  After six months however, he escaped and formed a petition for his pardon.  Newly elected president William Henry Harrison – only ten days after being elected and – happily pardoned Johnston, something former President Van Buren had vehemently refused.  He spent the rest of his days as a lighthouse keeper on Rock Island, not for from where he had captured, scuttled and burnt the Sir Robert Peel.

 

James Patterson:  James Patterson operated a horse thief gang out of Chippewa Bay on the American side of the water.  “Binette”, a Frenchman, would disguise himself as a peddler, moving about the villages on the Canadian side of the River, staking out potential scores of horses, cattle, and merchandise.  Operating with scows, bateaux, and small boats, they would hide their stolen horses on various islands, to be picked up at night.  Well-armed, the gang would secrete their watercrafts at various points along the river for a quick get-away, no matter where the pilfering was taking place.  Building a reputation as a terror group on the Canadian side, a group of reserves from the garrison at Kingston, commanded by Major Carley became determined to end the horse thievery ring. 

 

On a summer night in 1814, Patterson and his men hatched a scheme that would prove to be their undoing.  The garrison was paid monthly in specie, the load being shipped up from Montréal.  The Patterson gang caught wind of the time of the next shipment.  Well armed, they laid in wait for the shipment as it came through the Thousand Islands.  Overpowering the small crew, they absconded the specie and left the men stranded on an island.  They escaped under the cover of darkness to the American side, up Chippewa Creek where they cached their spoils. 

 

Back in Kingston, Major Carley learned of the ambush and quickly formed a squad to eradicate the problem of the American thieves.  Rowing fiercely for the pirates’ rendezvous, they abruptly came upon them, catching the six gang members off guard.  Immediately opening fire, four of the pirates were killed.  James Patterson lay mortally wounded.  He died soon after and the Patterson horse thieving days came to an end.

Aaron Day

Fig. 25 – Horse Thief Bay Rd. on the Thousand Islands Parkway memorializes a period of adventurers and plunderers (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.4 Life on the River

 

            The aim of this element is to highlight the general lifestyle of the people who lived on the Upper St. Lawrence.  As the title suggests, it should focus on the livelihoods of the people.  Although the Settlement Heritage section will touch on the specifics and unique history of each town, this element should look at the common cultural elements of life on the river.  It should focus on the collections of oral history, such as Emerton’s Brockville Voices and the oral interviews conducted by TIARA in the 70s.  Such topics could include farming and how many communities depended on agriculture at a time when a household’s daily menu came from local products, many of which were grown in the backyard.  Items that could not be had from the local market were often available at a larger town on the River.  In Morrisburg for example, families would take their boats across the river to Waddington, N.Y, to shop for goods not available in their town.

 

Although not as widespread as other areas of Canada, trapping was still done on a limited basis in the protected coves and bays of the river.  Duck hunting was also very popular; many original decoy designs came from the Upper St. Lawrence, created by the people who used them most. Fishing was mostly small-scale, supplying the local markets and restaurants.  Lake St. Francis had the largest commercial fishing network on the river. 

            There was also work to be had during the summer months, as droves of cottagers and tourists would come to the region.  Young men could work for families, operating their boats.  In Rockport for example, liveried servicemen would hang out at the docks, looking after a family’s fleet of boats, waiting with the other men as their employers dined at the local restaurants.

 

            Oral Interviews and Personal Anecdotes:  These are but a few examples of what life was like on the river.  The list given in the framework is by no means exhaustive and further research into the oral histories will allow future writers and researchers to paint a vibrant picture of what life was like on the river.  Upper Canada Village, for example, works as an excellent vignette of village life on the river in circa 1864.  Another example is from Dr. Traer Van Allen whose family has been in the Morrisburg area for generations.  To many, says Dr. Van Allen, the river is apart of them; when it’s time to pass, as Dr. Van Allen’s uncle did, they’ll climb on an ice flow and go with the river. 

 

Most importantly, this section is reserved for the voices of the past to be brought forward through the hands of writers who may best capture this feeling with warm and crafted words.  It is also suggested that samples of art and poetry be intertwined with this section to create a holistic image of the Upper St. Lawrence scene.

Aaron Day

 

 

 

8. Commerce and Industry

 

            Commerce and Industry is a collection of the various commercial pursuits that have utilized the water in one way or another.  Items have been broken down into sub-categories such as mills and marine motors.  For those that do not have their own section, they appear under the general title, Commerce and Industry.  For example, farmers clearing their land sold potash, a booming industry in the 19th century.  The potash was shipped to a wharf, such as Darlingside, and then transported down the river to Montréal and eventually across the Atlantic.  Businesses such as tanneries, distilleries, and ice cutting were able to thrive because of the river.  Commerce and Industry is an extremely important section because it focuses on the uses of the river that allowed communities to be established and to thrive.

 

8.1 Mills

 

A list of various mill operations has been gathered and recorded.  It may not be necessary to include all, and the list is by no means exhaustive.  It is rather a sampling of the various mill operations along and near the St. Lawrence and which shipped products down the river.  Photos have also been linked to in this section, some of which come from Upper Canada Village where an excellent demonstration of working mills are located. 

 

Fig. 26 – Elizabeth Simcoe, Mill on the Gananocoui, c.1792 (Archives of Ontario).

 

8.2 Stores and Wharves: The Wharfingers

 

            Stores and Wharves is intended to focus on the business ventures and the individuals who operated them on the river.  The “Wharfingers” provided an essential service to the shipping industry.  Farmers and lumber dealers for example, would sell their product to the wharfinger who would then sell it to companies that shipped it down the river and eventually exported.  Many like Darling, sold cordwood as fuel for the vessels.  Their stores also sold essential goods to people of the town as well as those vessels making their way up and down the river.  The examples listed in the framework look at some of the businesses of the wharfingers as well as some particular locations such as Darlingside, Moulinete, and Dickinson’s Landing.  The Darling Papers located in the Archives of Ontario should prove to be an excellent source for the various activities that occurred at Darlingside, should space and time allow for this kind of further research.

Fig. 27 – Darlingside Store and former wharf (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

8.3 Cheese Making

 

            Cheese making was also a common industry that emerged from the dairy farms of the settlements along the river.  The river became a vital highway to ship the product.  Demand for Canadian cheddar was high in England, and in order to make it appear more foreign, Canadian cheese makers began adding orange dye to their cheddar, creating the now well-known orange cheddar.           Fig. 28 – Union Cheese Factory, Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

8.4 Rumrunners and Smuggling

 

            Smuggling and bootlegging has always been a fact of life on the Upper St. Lawrence.  As early as the days of the U.S. embargo on Canadian and British imports during the War of 1812, smuggling has been common.  There’s even an area on the river in the Thousand Islands that bears reminder of this clandestine industry, Smuggler’s Cove.  The elements within this section look at smuggling in a chronological fashion beginning with the afore stated embargo and through the 19th century smuggling with a focus on the establishment of customs and some various fights with officers.  For example, there’s the story of Officer Anthony Dixon who got in a gunfight with Chamberlain and his gang near Brockville in 1852.  The customs officer was well paid because of this high risk and little respected job.  Then there is of course, the prohibition days, the seminal era of Canadian whiskey.  Some examples chosen to demonstrate these exciting, dangerous, and legendary days are high profile smugglers like Tricky McDermot and Norm Conley of Wolfe Island, Stephen Wesley, and the whiskey of Wiser’s Distillery.  The Thousand Islands became a haven and evasive maze for smugglers looking to cache some hooch and evade the law. 

 

8.5 Marine Motors

 

            Small as of yet, more research will undoubtedly add to this section.  Marine Motors looks at the businesses that gained success from the St. Lawrence and the burgeoning powerboat craze.  The St. Lawrence Engine Company was one such venture that became well known for their “two-cycle” engines for racing.

 

8.6 Boat Works

 

            Boat Works – which may vary well be merged with marine motors – focuses on the businesses that designed and manufactured the boats of recreation and sport on the river.  The Sauvé Bros. were internationally renowned for their cedar skiffs.   

 

8.7 Shipbuilding

 

            Similar to boat works, shipbuilding discusses the history of shipbuilding and the businesses that built them.  Four examples have been chose thus far which include the French at Pointe au Baril during the French and Indian Wars, the naval dockyard at Kingston and the large-scale operation of the Calvin Co. at Garden Island.  Finally, there is the comical story of the Knapp Roller Boat.  Designed by a lawyer, Mr. Knapp, he claimed it would revolutionize shipping on the St. Lawrence.  The boat, unfortunately proved worthless and extremely costly, and was eventually sold for scrap.  An illustration of the boat appears in Morrison’s History of Prescott.

 

8.8 Transportation Services

 

            Transportation Services describes the various methods of transport that have been used throughout the centuries on the Upper St. Lawrence.  From the earliest methods such as canoe and bateau to the horse boat ferries, this looks at a variety of modes of travel and transport.  There is also winter travel such as sleigh, the “bushed roads” where cedar branches were placed along the edges of the roads to mark the path in case of wind and snow hiding the road, and ice boats that were used to cross the river during fall freeze and spring thaw.  This section will also look at the impact on the Upper St. Lawrence trade of such elements as the Rideau Canal and the Railroad.  There are also such elements as the “Mail Line” and the importance of the river for basic communication before the days of paved roads and fast land travel brought by rail and automobiles. 

Fig. 29 – Horse Towing through the Canal, Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

Transportation Services is a varied and important section and so for the more encompassing portions of the section, sub-groups have been established for organization.

 

8.8.1 Steamships, Paddlers and Ferries

 

            This sub-section discusses the history of the steamship, paddlers, and ferry on the Upper St. Lawrence.  These vessels provided a vital service to the public and businesses of the river while the river itself provided a vital water highway on which they could operate.   Various examples of specific vessels have been included that have a rich and memorable history with the people of the river such as the Rapids Prince and the Great Britain, which includes a piece in Painters in a New Land.

 

8.8.2 Dams and Canals: Construction, Maintenance, and Operations

 

            Dams and Canals were essential for shipping on the St. Lawrence as well as for power for the riparian communities.  The Upper St. Lawrence has had 200 years of alterations from the first small-scale canals at Long Sault and Galop to the mammoth St. Lawrence Seaway.  Some had a very low impact while others inexorably altered the river and its people forever.  This section allows for the warm and memorable heritage of the early canals such as the Williamsburg Canals, which was composed of the Farran Point, Rapide Plat, and Galop canals and can still be seen today, and their importance in the daily life of the communities.  This section will also discuss the Seaway and how it has altered the landscape and heritage of the Upper St. Lawrence.  A large number of photos have been linked to through the framework of the remains, many still well intact, of the canals and locks.

Fig. 30 – Old Galop Canal and Lock at Cardinal (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

8.8.3 Shipwrecks

 

            Shipwrecks are also a natural occurrence of any waterway used frequently for shipping.  The Upper St. Lawrence is known worldwide for it’s diving.  This section looks at some of those boats that lie at the bottom of the river. 

 

Fig. 31 – Wreck of the Conostoga, Cardinal (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

 

 

 

 

 

8.8.4 Navigation and Pilots

 

            There have been various navigation companies that have used the St. Lawrence as their shipping highway.  This section looks at some of those companies and the shipping monopolies they established on the river.  It also discusses the navigational aids that were essential to successful piloting through a river marked with hidden shoals and islands.

 

8.8.5 Forwarders

 

            The forwarding business boomed for a short while before the introduction of large canals and vessels that could shoot the rapids.  Towns at the head and mouth of a set of rapids such as Prescott and Cornwall shot up over night with hotels, inns, taverns, and wharves to meet the demands of the ships and the cargoes, including passengers, that had to be transferred in order to pass the rapids.  It should discuss some original and prominent forwarders and companies like William Gilkinson, the rivalry that existed between Prescott – the dominant forwarding centre – and Brockville, and the hotel and tavern industry that was established for the passengers.

 

8.9 Timber Industry

 

            The Timber Industry section discusses the booming lumber trade that used the Upper St. Lawrence to ship its product to Montréal and across the Atlantic.  Of particular importance is the Calvin Co. of Garden Island who were not only master shipbuilders, but were deep in the business of cordwood and lumber.  Thousands of log drams set off from Garden Island to make the journey down the river, over the rapids, to be loaded on ocean-going vessels in Montréal.  This section also has an interesting primary source from the pen of Joel Stone, describing his venture over the Long Sault Rapids in 1804 on a log raft.

Fig. 32 – Frances Ann Hopkins, The Lumber Raft c.1868 (Acc. No. R9266-278 Library and Archives Canada, public domain).

 

 

 

9. Spiritual Associations

 

            This section focuses on religion and faith and their relation to the river.  This can incorporate some of the previously discussed spiritual associations of First Nations on the river, as well as European.  In many instances, settlements along the river still have standing resources such as churches.  Photos of some of these churches are included in the framework.  There is the “Blue Church” of New Oswegatchie, a focal point for Methodism and Loyalists in Upper Canada.  There are also figures who have had a large impact on religious life in the early settlement days such as Reverends John Stuart and William Smart.  Of course, there is the popular Half Moon Bay and the mural in Gananoque depicting it.                                      Fig. 33 – Blue Church, New Oswegatchie (Photo: Dan Kingsbury).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10. Cultural Expression

 

            This section is for the various expressions of culture that have shaped the landscape and cultural heritage of the riparian settlements.  It is suggested that the music, literature, and art not only be described and explained in this section, along with samples, but that examples, such as a passage from a novel, journal, song or poem, or a piece of artwork be spread intermittently throughout the backgrounder to accompany the descriptions and writings of the cultural heritage.  For example, in the French, Conflict, and Loyalist sections, photographs, paintings, and a 1701 map have been placed to accompany the write-ups. 

 

10.1 Riparian Architecture: Houses that Typified Early St. Lawrence Settlement in

Upper Canada (see Guide to Historic Homes in Ontario, Parks Canada)

 

Fig. 34 – A Loyalist Log Home, Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

           

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When the Loyalists came from the Thirteen Colonies, they brought with them ideas and styles typical of their region (i.e. New England, Schohaire Valley of New York).  Coupled with a British zeal for simple and orderly, a unique riparian architectural style emerged along the banks of the St. Lawrence.  Before this happened however, the settlers went through a process of housing.  First in tents and then log shanties, they hacked out the surrounding wilderness to establish themselves.  Once, after a few years, the clearing was complete and time and money made available, many families transitioned from the temporary shanty – which became the barn – to a permanent log house.  The wealthier families were able to make another transition into the limestone structures that characterize towns along the river such as Kingston and Brockville. 

Fig. 35 – John Lafayette House, c.1845. A typical Vernacular Loyalist stone home (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

The framework lists these architectural patterns in a chronological order.  After the Log Shanty that is accompanied by photographs from Upper Canada Village, came the Georgian House.  The Georgian House came in various forms and is commonly referred to as American or Loyalist Vernacular for its American roots and Georgian influences (symmetrical and simple).  These types of homes, with numerous photographic examples in the framework, were the quintessential loyalist homes.  There were of course, more elaborate variations, such as Homewood of the Georgian Classicism style. 

           

Fig. 36 – St. John’s Roman Catholic Church, Gananoque (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

There are other structures besides homes, and notes have been made on the typical riparian barns, farms and fences such as the Schohaire style of barn (there is a representation at Upper Canada Village of two barns from the early 1800s moved from Kirkwood near Aultsville (Fig. 37)).  There are also churches, inns, taverns, and hotels, Upper Canada Village hosting originals such as Cook’s Tavern and Willard’s Hotel.

Of particular note is the Morrisburg Stage Coach Inn, now a home located on the water in the west end of Morrisburg.  It was recently purchased by a friend of the project, Dr. Traer Van Allen and has been converted into a period home and archives.  From Dr. Van Allen it was learned that the home used to be operated as an inn for those travelling the original King’s Highway to bypass the rapids, the original road passing between the home and the river, facing a section of the Williamsburg Canal.  Images have been linked to in the framework.

 

 

Fig. 37 – Schohaire Barn, Upper Canada Village (Photo: Aaron Day).

 

10.2 Music and Art

 

            Similar to the other sub-sections of cultural expression, Music and Art focuses on the songs and works that have been influenced by the river.  More research is required to strengthen this important section, but a few suggestions have been made with references such as songs of the voyageurs and log-drivers, literature, and photography.  This is however, the preliminary portion of the music and art section, another sub-section to this has been created as well.

 

10.2.1 Romanticism of the River

 

            Through the research conducted, it was realized that most art and literature to come out of the river had a romantic influence.  This section is to recognize this and the influence the river had on early artwork and literature.  In the 1800s, and even in modern times, people had a paradoxical relationship with the river.  It was often represented as a natural wonder, untamed, dangerous and revered.  At the same time, however, it was this romantic perception of the river’s beauty that drove men to shape, control, and inevitably alter it in order to use it to their advantage.  This is often reflected in the early artwork of painters and sketch artists like Frances Ann Hopkins, William Henry Bartlett, James Peachey, and even Lady Simcoe who accompanied her husband (Governor of Upper Canada) up the St. Lawrence, describing the passage in her journal along with sketches and water-colour paintings. 

Fig. 38 – Elizabeth Simcoe, Thousand Islands, July 26 c. 1796 (Archives of Ontario).

 

Literature has often been similar to the stylistic patterns of artwork.  Fiction and non-fiction alike have symbolically depicted the beauty and power of the river.  Charles Dickens, during his travels in America, recorded his trip down the river in American Notes in 1842, describing the beauty he saw.  Even James Fenimore Cooper, in The Pathfinder, describes the Upper St. Lawrence.  There are also classics like Susanna Moodie’s Roughing it in the Bush, which describes life in the region for the settler. 

 

 

Part 2: Upper St. Lawrence Settlement Heritage

 

            The Upper St. Lawrence Settlement Heritage section is for a more particular and local historical perspective of the individual communities that have grown on the river.   Under each town’s chapter in the Framework, elements have been identified that can be included in an individual town’s chapter.  This section is not however, for a complete history of the town and its politics.  Rather, it is set up to provide a picture of the community and how it grew up, survived on, and made use of the river.  It’s a chance for the unique histories of the town and its relationship with the river to be described and highlighted.  Some of this will undoubtedly be repetitive with other sections such as Commerce and Industry, but it is hoped that it will provide a platform for historians and members of the communities to bring to light the histories that have been overlooked or merely not recorded regarding their town’s heritage.  Due to space constraints, it is intended that these histories be somewhat brief and it is therefore stressed that it be strictly a riparian description. 

 

1. South Lancaster/Lake St. Francis

 

2. Cornwall

 

3. Lost Villages and Upper Canada Village, Morrisburg

 

4. Cardinal

 

5. Johnstown

 

6. Prescott

 

7. Maitland

 

8. Elizabethtown/Brockville

 

9. Rockport

 

10. Gananoque

 

11. Thousand Islands

 

            For the Thousand Island, a general description will most likely be adequate.  It is suggested that a couple islands be chosen as examples of the character and nature of the islands.  One such island is Grenadier Island, which could act as a vignette for “Heritage Highlights”.  Other points of interest that warrant some investigation and write-up were the processes of acquiring the islands (see also: 1000 Islands for Sale), the international bridge and rift, and the parkway. 

 

12. Cataraqui/Kingston

 

13. Wolfe, Garden and Howe Islands

 

            Wolfe and Garden, and Howe Islands have been given their own section because of their size and human history.  More than just summer cottage communities, theses were and still are year round homes with vibrant farming traditions.  Further research may be required or a local historian contacted to complete this section. 

 

Part 3: Upper St. Lawrence Recreational Heritage

 

            As the title suggest, this section will focus on the recreational side to the heritage backgrounder.  This section will naturally be less descriptive and dense than the general human history of the Upper St. Lawrence.  Sections have been identified with sub sections and elements.  Although it is not exhaustive, the list provided in the framework should give a comprehensive and essential list for the backgrounder.  These range from cottages, resorts and hotels – which have catered to the emergence of vacationers in the early 1900s right up to the modern – to various forms of summer and winter recreation that have been tradition, pastime and competitive on the river. 

 

1. 1000 Islands for Sale

 

2. Hotels and Resorts

 

3. Castles and Cottages

 

4. Summer Recreation

 

5. Winter Recreation

 

6. St. Lawrence Islands National Park

 

Part 4: Upper St. Lawrence Cultural Resources (see Photographs)

 

            Part of the backgrounder for nomination, as stipulated by CHRS, calls for a demonstration of the cultural resources on the river.  These include historic sites and plaques, museums, homes and buildings of historic merit.  A list of sites has been organized by type and location in the Framework.

 

1. Designated Historic Sites

 

            Designated Historic Sites are for those that have been recognized by such institutions as Parks Canada and UNESCO.  They are organized by location in the framework.

 

2. Museums

 

            Museums that have been visited and have cultural significance for the river (some of which contain excellent resource centres) are listed, including links to their websites.  A link to the website for Ontario Museums Association has also been included.  This site provides a museum and archive locator by region.

 

3. Historic Plaques

 

            Historic plaques are the “on the ground interpreters” of heritage for towns and lesser-known sites.  There exist far too many for them all to be recognized in the backgrounder, but a generous sampling, particularly for those which hold exemplary merit for the heritage of the river, should be described in this section. For National plaques, contact the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada.  For the more common Ontario Historical Plaques (blue and gold) there are two great sites.  The Ontario Heritage Trust site gives a summary of the plaques details.  A search can be made by location and content.  Better yet however, is a private site that has compiled a searchable database of near every known plaque in Ontario.  Each plaque description comes with a photograph and location of the plaque and a verbatim description.

 

4. Sites of Historic Merit

 

            Sites of Historic Merit refer to specific structures and sites that, although do not have institutional recognition, deserve mention and description nonetheless.

 

 

Part 5: Upper St. Lawrence Natural Heritage

 

*Note – The Natural Heritage Section essentially follows the guidelines set out be the Canadian Heritage River System.  More information about these guidelines and how to implement them can be found in the Natural Values document produced by the CHRS.  Due to the numerous human induced impacts on the St. Lawrence, such as the flooding of the Seaway, the St. Lawrence cannot be nominated based on its natural heritage values according to the CHRS guidelines.  Nevertheless, the unique natural heritage of the St. Lawrence must be documented and those areas that are of significant value should be noted.  It is for this reason that a less broad framework (addressing only what is required by the CHRS) was adopted for the natural heritage section when compared to the cultural heritage section.  This write-up is by no means exhaustive and will require further input from qualified contributors in some sections.  Future contributors to this project can feel free to expand upon the framework, but should not cut anything from it.  Links to further research on this section can be obtained by clicking on the hyperlinks found in the document.  Even more hyperlinks can be found in the Natural Heritage section of the Framework document.   

 

1.0 - Hydrology

 

1.1 – Drainage Basin

           

The St. Lawrence River is the primary river in the St. Lawrence Drainage Basin, giving the river a stream number of zero.  The western edge of the St. Lawrence Drainage Basin is located slightly west of Duluth Minnesota and stretches to the Atlantic Ocean, covering an area of more than 1,344,000 km2 if both land and water is included.  (Image of North American Drainage Basins)

 

“The St. Lawrence–Great Lakes is one of the largest hydrographic systems in the world. It drains more than 25% of the earth’s reserves of fresh water and influences the environmental processes of the entire North American continent.  Its drainage basin is the second-largest in Canada, after that of the Mackenzie River, and the third-largest in North America, after that of the Mississippi and Mackenzie rivers.” (Environment Canada, 2007).

 

Here’s how the hydrographic system of the St. Lawrence–Great Lakes stacks up worldwide: 

·         It is the 17th longest, at 3260 km starting from Lake Superior to the Cabot Strait

 

1.2 – Seasonal Variation 

 

Water levels on the Upper St. Lawrence are regulated in accordance to International Joint Commission guidelines using control dams at Iroquois, Cornwall/Massena and at the South-end of Lake St. Francis.  Water levels above the Iroquois Dam (including Lake Ontario) have been  maintained at levels between 74.15m to 75.37m above International Great Lakes Datum, 1985 (IGLD 1985) since 1960 (IJC, 2008).  IGLD 1985 refers to the vertical geo-referencing system established to determine water levels on the Great Lakes (Canadian Hydrographic Service, 2008).  The baseline zero value for IGLD 1985 (see image) can informally be thought as the average mean sea-level value.  The average mean sea-level height was established using readings gathered at Father Point in Rimouski, Quebec (NOAA, 2006).  Thus, informally speaking, if the water level at Brockville measures 74.13m, it can be thought of as being approximately that height above sea-level.  Water levels in the International Rapids section between the Iroquois Dam and the Cornwall Dam help maintain a buffer between Lake Ontario water levels and the power dam at Cornwall and are adjusted to provide optimal conditions for power generation and shipping. 

 

Despite the strict regulation of water levels on the Upper St. Lawrence since the installation of dams in the late 1950’s, water levels do vary according to season.  Water levels in the Upper St. Lawrence reach their maximum height sometime between May and July corresponding to the winter thaw in the Upper Great Lakes.  The period of the lowest water levels occurs in the early winter, typically around December.  The graph below shows the typical annual water level readings at the Brockville Station. 

 

Before regulation of water levels in Lake Ontario and the Upper St. Lawrence in 1960, the historical water levels were not that different.  From 1918 to 1959, the mean water level for Lake Ontario and the Upper St. Lawrence west of the Iroquois Dam was 74.70, with a maximum monthly mean of 75.76m and a minimum monthly mean of 73.74.  The range of mean water levels was 2.02m pre-1960 compared to 1.90m post-1960 (International St. Lawrence River Board of Control, 2008).

 

 

 

Recently the International Joint Commission announced a review of its water level policy, which has not been updated since the late 1950’s.  In March 2008 the IJC announced that it favoured Plan 2007 and was allowing for public consultation on the proposed plan with a decision to be announced in September, 2008 (IJC, 2008).  There has been strong opposition from groups like Save the River, who suggest that Plan 2007 is too similar to the current plan.  Furthermore, it has been suggested that Plan 2007 does not do enough to address the environmental concerns that exist on the St. Lawrence River (Lee, 2008).  Opponents of Plan 2007 are calling for the IJC to adopt Plan B+, which is touted to be the most environmentally sensitive option.

 

1.3 – Water Content

 

The Hydrological Atlas of Canada – Map 28 (Water Quality)

Location: Stauffer Library - Maps & Air Photos (Atlases)

Call Number: G1116 .C3 C36 1978t

1)   Title:  Water Quality in the St. Lawrence River at Wolfe Island
Control Identifier:  EC-00770721

2)   Title:  Trace Organic Contaminants in the St. Lawrence River at Wolfe Island

Control Identifier:  EC-00770722

 

 

1.4 –Size of the St. Lawrence River

 

The size of the St. Lawrence River can be determined by looking at both the length of the river, as well as the discharge volume. 

 

The length of the St. Lawrence River is somewhat debatable given that there is no obvious start or end point to the river.  The St. Lawrence originates at the outflow of Lake Ontario, which is generally thought to be at Kingston on the north shore, Wolfe Island midstream and Cape Vincent NY on the south shore.   However, some contend that the natural end-point of Lake Ontario and thus the start point of the St. Lawrence River occurs around Ivy Lea, ON (Henderson, 1976)[1].   At this point the channel narrows considerably and the effective sill known as the Frontenac Arch impedes the water’s flow until it plunges to great depths at an underwater waterfall (Ross, 2001).  Using the later start point, the river would be approximately 43km shorter than conventional wisdom. 

 

The end point of the St. Lawrence is also debateable considering the mouth of the river is quite wide where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean.  The River widens considerably past Quebec City where it forms an estuary.  The mouth of the River is over 100km wide.  According to the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the St. Lawrence ends at the point where a line from the mouth of Rivière St-Jean on the north shore extends past the west tip of Ile d' Anticosti to Cap des Rosiers on the south shore.  This line marks the end of the river and the beginning of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.  The most commonly cited length of the River is 1197km. (Canadian Encyclopaedia, 2008).  The Ontario portion of the river is approximately 200km in length. 

           

The discharge volume of the St. Lawrence at Ogdensburg, NY had an annual average of 6986 m3/s, with an annual high of 8946 m3/s and an annual low of 5219 m3/s (Pekarova et al., 2003).  Also see outflow data for Cornwall/Massena. 

 

 

 

2.0 - Physiology

 

2.1 Physiographic Regions

 

A physiographic region refers to a landscape that shares common characteristics and attributes. The St. Lawrence River crosses four of Canada’s physiographic regions on its journey to the Atlantic Ocean.  The Ontario section crosses two physiographic regions – the St. Lawrence Lowlands, specifically the Central St. Lawrence Lowlands and the Laurentian region of the Canadian Shield (also known as the Precambrian Shield) (Bostock, 1967).  For a detailed description of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, click on this link to Natural Resource Canada. 

 

StLawrence_Phsiographic_Regions

 

 

2.2 Geological Processes

 

The Upper St. Lawrence is comprised of two geological provinces: the Grenville Province and the St. Lawrence Platform.  The Grenville Province influences the geology of the St. Lawrence at the Frontenac Arch, where the Canadian Shield extends to the Adirondacks.  (For a detailed explanation of geological provinces, including terminology such as shields and platforms, visit Natural Resources Canada). 

 

Geological_provinces

 

Over the last 2.5 billion years, present day Ontario has been part of no less than four continents: Artica, Nena, Rodinia and Pangea (Eyles, 2002).  The formation and deformation of these continents, as well as numerous other geological processes have all contributed to the present day geological make-up of Ontario.  It is believed that during the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia some 570 million years ago, two rifts formed: the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben and the St. Lawrence Rift (Eyles 2002, 98).  The St. Lawrence Rift created a large gouge in the earth’s lithosphere along the length of the present day St. Lawrence River extending into Lake Erie, which has remained ever since the breakup of Rodinia.  These rifts were reactivated during the break up of Pangea some 150 million years ago (Eyles, 2002). 

 

The Upper St. Lawrence region is comprised of two geologically unique characteristics, each formed during different time periods: palezoic geology, which accounts for the sedimentary rock found around Kingston and east of Brockville; and the much older igneous and metamorphic rock of the Canadian Shield’s Grenville Province formed during the mesoproterozoic era.  This part of the Canadian Shield is commonly referred to as the Frontenac Arch.  

 

The formation of Ontario’s present day geological makeup is perhaps best understood by using the analogy of a layered cake.  The first layer represents the oldest rock formations in Ontario, called the North American or Laurentia craton (more commonly referred to as the Canadian Shield).  This is the base rock for much of North America even though only part of it is exposed to the surface.  The rest is buried under other layers of rock that were formed during later time periods.  The Laurentia craton formed during the Archean age between 2.5 and 3 billion years ago through the welding together of much older Slave, Hearne, Superior, Rae and Wyoming Provinces.  These former landmasses were part of, or embodied even older continents in their own right.  Thus, the original North American continent (named Arctica) was born out of a number of entities to form the North American craton, which in turn formed the Shield.  Successive fusing of rock masses (a process named ‘orogeny’) added to the Laurentia Shield.  The Grenville Province, which is the part of the Shield that forms the Frontenac Arch, was added to the Laurentia craton 1.3 billion years ago during the formation of the continent Rodina. 

 

Source: Eyles 2002, 116

 

 

 

Following the addition of the Grenville Province to the Laurentia craton, there was a period of erosion and non-deposition.  The great mountains of the Shield were worn down and their sediment carried to Canada’s arctic.  This ‘period of unconformity’ lasted approximately 300 to 400 million years, at which time Rodina started to breakup causing deep and lasting rifts to occur along the present day St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers. 

 

The second rock type (sedimentary) found in the Upper St. Lawrence region was formed much later than the Shield following the breakup of the continent Rodina, about 600 million ago.  At this time, parts of the Shield’s surface (Cashel Peneplain) sagged downwards allowing the Iapetus Sea to inundate the Shield creating broad shallow seas over Southern Ontario during the Paleozoic era between 300 and 600 million years ago. The inundation of the Iapetus Sea occurred on either side of the present day Frontenac Arch, which has resulted in the varied geology of the Upper St. Lawrence.  Sedimentation from the broad shallow seas on either side of the Frontenac Arch eventually lithified, turning into limestone plains over many millions of years.  Thus to the west of the Frontenac Arch lies the limestone belonging to the Simcoe Group, while to the east of the Arch lies the lies limestone and shale of the Ottawa Embayment.

 

 

 

 

 The third layer of the Upper St. Lawrence River’s geological makeup is the surficial layer.  The surficial layer is shaped by bedrock topography with low areas filled with glacial deposits (Occheitti, 1989).  Multiple glaciations have accentuated existing features in the bedrock through scouring action.  The Great Lakes were formed as a result of glacial scouring, creating large pits into which glacial melt-water has pooled.  Scouring has also shaped the present day geology of the Upper St. Lawrence by accentuating the crustal rift.  Glacial deposits are largely the result of the Wisconsin Glaciation period which covered Ontario 75,000 BP (before present), with the most recent ice sheet (the Laurentian) retreating approximately 12,000 BP. 

 

The formation of surficial deposits in the area between Brockville and the Ontario –Quebec border can be categorized three ways: deposits of the Sangamonian optimum, deposits pre-dating the Late Wisconisinan glacial maxium, and postglacial deposits dating from the end of the Late Wisconsian and the beginning of the Holocene (Occheitti, 1989).  Sub-till deposits found at Pointe-Fortune, on the Ontario-Quebec border, are representative of deposits from the Sangamonian optimum, the interglacial period preceding the Wisconsian Glaciation (Anderson, 1990).  The Pointe-Fortune till deposit consists of unfossiliferious sand overlying organic-bearing sand, massive clay and sand-clay (Occheitti, 1989).  Aside from the Pointe-Fortune deposits, evidence of deposits predating the last glacial maximum in the Upper St. Lawrence are hard to come by.  However, evidence of post glacial deposits is plentiful in this region, largely as a result of the Champlain Sea’s dominance over the area as far west as Brockville.   

 

Much of the St Lawrence Lowland is underlain by clay deposited in the Champlain Sea. It is as thick as 60 m in Quebec along the north side of the river near the former glacial-margin and becomes progressively thinner until it virtually disappears in Eastern Ontario.  The western and southern parts of the Upper St. Lawrence east of Brockville are underlain by glacial deposits (till) rather than marine clay. Wave action has removed the silt and clay from the till, leaving behind sand and gravel. 

 

Soil cover varies on the banks of the St. Lawrence River west of the Ontario-Quebec border.  For a detailed map of soil types and underlying material, see the detailed soil map of Eastern Ontario and the accompanying legend.

 

2.3 Hydrogeology

 

The floor of the St. Lawrence River consists of a series of terraces and stepped plains formed by the littoral and fluvial processes during the regression of the Champlain Sea at the end of the Wisconsinan (Occheitti, 1989).

 

Surficial Hydrogeology

 

The surficial deposits of the St. Lawrence Hydrogeological Region east of Kingston are composed primarily of sand deposits which originated either as beaches of the glacial era Champlain Sea or as high terraces fromed during the early stages of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers.  Water quality in this region varies from less than 500ppm Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) in the west to a range of 500 to 2500ppm TDS in the east.  Yields are commonly from 0.5 to 2 litres per second. 

(Source: Hydrological Atlas of Canada, 1978, Map 30)

 

Bedrock Hydrogeology

 

The St. Lawrence Lowlands Hydrogeological Region, an area of low relief and humid climate, is underlain by unfolded Paleozoic rocks.  This region is divided into three distinct areas by Precambrian rocks.  The western part, which comprises most of south western Ontario, is separated from the central part by a projection of the Canadian Shield region intersecting the St. Lawrence River to the east of Kingston.  The central part is similarly separated is similarly separated from the eastern part by the Canadian Shield region crossing at the confluence of the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence Rivers.  Groundwater occurs in the pore spaces and fractures in these rocks, with inter-granular flow being dominant in the sandstones and fracture flow predominating in the carbonates.    

(Source: Hydrological Atlas of Canada, 1978, Map 31)

 

2.4 Topography

 

The natural flow of the St. Lawrence River is influenced by the relief and sloping evident in the region’s topography, however, it has been drastically altered since the damming of the river in 1959.  Gone are the mighty Long Sault Rapids.  Since the building of the dams at Cornwall/Massena and the Iroquois Dam, the descent of the river’s flow has been levelled off.  Consequently, the rapids have been flooded and a reservoir lake named Lake St. Lawrence has formed upriver of Moses-Saunders Power Dam.

 

 

3.0 – Morphology

 

3.1 Valley Types

 

The walls of the St. Lawrence Valley vary according to the river’s bedrock geology.  In the Frontenac Arch where the Canadian Shield is prominent, straight slope valley walls are evident.  In area east of the Frontenac Arch (known as the Central St. Lawrence Lowlands) where sedimentary rock underlies the river, the valley walls are much broader and far less defined.    

 

3.2 Channel Patterns

 

The Upper St. Lawrence is a relatively straight river, with few bends in its course.  Those bends that do exist tend to be very slight in nature.  The portion of the river between Prescott and Lake St. Francis is more sinuous in nature.  In this portion, the river displays characteristics somewhat like a delta where it empties into Lake St. Francis.  The river’s flow in this area has been drastically altered due to damming of the St. Lawrence at Cornwall.

 

The Upper St. Lawrence has two lakes on its course to the Quebec portion of the River.  Lake St. Lawrence rests above the Moses-Saunders Power facility.  It is a man-made lake created when the damming of the St. Lawrence was completed in 1959.  Lake St. Francis, which lies in Ontario, Quebec and New York, is not man-made; however the present water level of the lake is controlled by dams at each end of the lake. 

 

3.3 Channel Profile

 

Historically the horizontal profile of the St. Lawrence could be considered stepped, being level in some spots with areas of steep decline and rapids.  However, since the damming of the St. Lawrence, the infamous rapids on the Upper St. Lawrence have been flooded.  The present day profile of the river can be seen in the figure below.  There are areas of swift water, particularly where the underwater waterfalls occurs in the Raft Narrows section near Ivy Lea.

   

3.4 Fluvial Landforms

 

One of the more noteworthy phenomena resulting from the influence of climate on fluvial activity is the ‘glaciel’ process that occurs every spring.  Tributaries are frozen during the winter; flooding and stream flow during spring break-up results in the transport of debris and shore erosion by seasonal ice (Occhietti, 1989). 

 

Over thousands of years the river has flowed over the underlying bedrock of the St. Lawrence River.  Variation in bedrock resistance in the Frontenac Axis region where the river passes over Precambrian Shield has resulted in the formation of the picturesque Thousand Islands. 

 

 

4.0 – Biotic Environments

 

4.1 Aquatic Ecosystems

 

The Upper St. Lawrence has various aquatic ecosystems, including: riverine systems, lake systems and wetland systems along its course.  The river displays characteristics of a middle-order riverine system.  Common characteristics of a middle-order riverine system include: sediment transport, broad seasonal water temperatures, variable discharge, and common invertebrates comprised of collectors and grazers (Vannote et al., 1980). 

 

The Upper St. Lawrence flows through two lacustrine systems: Lake St. Lawrence and Lake St. Francis, the former being the result of damming at Cornwall.  Lake St. Francis is regulated as well with dams at each end of the lake, however, it did exist prior to European settlement on the river.  Damming has drastically altered the natural characteristics of the river.  Damming results in water accumulating upstream of the dam where it floods the land, creating a lake in which the water is relatively static and in which sediment accumulates with time.  Downstream of the dam, water is generally in constant movement.   

 

A number of wetlands exist along the Upper St. Lawrence, many of which have been designated provincial or regional areas of natural or scientific interest (ANSI) by the Ministry of Natural Resources.  These wetlands are highly biologically diverse environments and are crucial for the maintenance of a healthy river ecosystem.  It is often said that wetlands are nature’s kidneys, filtering and cleaning the air and water we need for life.  In the entire St. Lawrence Valley, wetlands account for 9% of total surface area, with marshes and peatlands accounting for less than 1% (Environment Canada, 2006).  Unfortunately there has been significant wetland loss between 1800 and 1982 along the Upper St. Lawrence as the figure below demonstrates.  The MNR, through their Southern Ontario Land Resource Information System (SOLRIS) program, is currently in the process of evaluating the state of land use cover in Eastern Ontario, which includes a comprehensive account of current wetlands along the St. Lawrence River.  For a detailed report on the status and methodology of this project, visit their website.

 

Source:  National Wetlands Working Group, 1988. Wetlands of Canada (chapter 6). Rubec, C. and Harrison G. (eds.), Ecological Land Classification Series, No. 24. Environment Canada and Polyscience Publications Inc. Montreal, Quebec, 452 pp. 

 

For further information regarding wetlands on the Upper St. Lawrence, consult the National Atlas of Canada, Map 9.1. 

 

4.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems

 

The Upper St. Lawrence River is part of two terrestrial ecosystem zones (or eco-regions):  Mixed Wood Plains and Boreal Shield.  The Mixed Wood Plains can be further dived into a two sub-regions: Manitoulin – Lake Simcoe and the St. Lawrence Lowlands.  The Frontenac Arch of the Algonquin – Lake Nipissing sub-region is within the Boreal Shield ecosystem. 

 

The Manitoulin – Lake Simcoe Eco-region

 

This eco-region is located around Kingston on the limestone plains to the east of the Frontenac Arch and only constitutes a small portion of the proposed designation length for the river.  This region is primarily dominated by agricultural land cover, with significant areas of mixed wood forest, successional woodland and scrub. 

 

The Frontenac Arch Eco-region

 

This eco-region sits on the Canadian Shield.  It acts as the connection corridor between Algonquin highlands and the Adirondacks.  The Frontenac Arch ecosystem differs from its neighbouring ecosystems for a number of reasons.  Thin acidic soil chemistry limits some plants and animals in favour of others.  The Thousand Islands region is also regulated by a micro-climate which contributes to differences in ecosystem composition. 

 

The St. Lawrence Lowlands Eco-region

 

This eco-region to the east of the Frontenac Arch sits on top of the sandstone and shale created by ancient marine sediments.  Soil in this area and tends to be suitable for a diverse eco-system.  Similar to the area around Kingston, this region is primarily dominated by agricultural land cover, with significant areas of mixed wood forest, successional woodland and scrub. 

 

5.0 – Vegetation

 

5.1 Significant Plant Communities

 

5.1.1 Species Type

 

Aquatic/Riparian

 

The fast flow and the depth of the St. Lawrence generally restrict the growth of in-stream vegetation to algae and macrophytes (larger aquatic plants).  Wetlands along the banks of the St. Lawrence and among the islands also provide an example of in-stream vegetation.

 

Further research is required for the aquatic/riparian vegetation section.  The likely candidate to write this section should have a fairly comprehensive knowledge of plant life common along the St. Lawrence.  The aquatic plants section can be broken-up into three broad categories: in-stream vegetation (which has been covered briefly above), floating vegetation, and emergent vegetation (which are plants rooted beneath the surface of the water, but have most of their vegetative growth above the water).  Riparian vegetation grows at the margins of the St. Lawrence River.  This type of vegetation is important to the river’s health as it stabilizes riverbanks, prevents runoff, and helps with flood control.  Riparian vegetation also provides habitat for wildlife and serves as a food source.  This section should only include plant communities that are significant to the St. Lawrence River.  See the CHRS Natural Heritage Guidelines for a definition of significant. 

 

Vascular Plants

 

Vascular Plants are herbaceous plants not growing in or beside the river but within the river environment, including its valley.  More research will need to be conducted to identify examples of vascular plants communities that are significant to the St. Lawrence River.  See the CHRS Natural Heritage Guidelines for a definition of significant.  A complete inventory of vascular plants from Kingston to Brockville can be found at:

http://oliver_kilian.tripod.com/1000islands/species/tie_species_lists.htm

Information regarding vascular plants east of Brockville can be found at the Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre:

http://nhic.mnr.gov.on.ca/nhic_.cfm

 

Trees and Shrubs

 

Variation in the trees and shrubs found along the St. Lawrence generally coincide with a particular eco-region.  The Manitoulin-Lake Simcoe eco-region, which can be seen around Kingston, displays examples of mixed wood forest.  The dominant are species are sugar maple, beech, eastern hemlock, red oak and basswood.  The Frontenac Arch eco-region is typified by sugar maple, beech, basswood, red and white ash, yellow birch, red maple, eastern hemlock white pine, and red, white and bur oak trees.  The St. Lawrence Lowlands eco-region east of the Brockville displays examples of sugar maple, yellow birch, eastern hemlock, and eastern white pine, red pine, eastern white cedar and red oak.  Wetter sites support red maple, black ash, white spruce and tamarack. 

 

5.1.2 Exceptionality

 

This section is intended to apply the CHRS guidelines for exceptionality to the plant categories found in section 5.1.1.  Exceptional examples of plant species must meet any of the following four qualities:

1)      Extent - the abundance of a plant community, as demonstrated in the number of plants, the areal extent of the community or its purity.

2)      Location - the unusual location of the plants relative to the normal distribution of the species in the eco-zone in which the river is located, due to localized soil or climatic conditions or climate change, including relict species.

3)      Dynamic – community dynamics such as rapidity of its change or slowness, or in the age of the plant specimens, measured in absolute terms or relative to those typical of the eco-zone.

4)      Diversity - the diversity of a plant community, reflected in the number of different species present or in the unusual association of particular species.

 

5.2 Rare Plant Species

 

This section follows a similar outline as section 5.1; however it deals only with plant species that are listed by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), or a similar provincial agency.   

 

Complete listing of COSEWIC species can be found at:

www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca.

 

St Lawrence Islands National Park has a list of COSEWIC species found in the park on its website:

http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/on/lawren/natcul/natcul3_e.asp

 

The MNR has a species at risk list available at:

http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/Species/index.html

 

The second element of this section addresses the rarity of the species according the COSEWIC (or similar provincial agency) listing.  COSEWIC has three categorizes for endangered species: endangered, threatened, and of special concern.  

 

 

6.0 – Fauna

 

6.1 Taxonomy

 

The Upper St. Lawrence has a diverse range of fauna within its various eco-regions, which contribute to the biodiversity of the river.  The river hosts a wide variety of fish, mammals and birds, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates, some of which are extremely rare.

 

Fish

 

Due the numerous different types of water habitats, the St. Lawrence supports a large variety of fish.  It has been estimated that there are over 88 species of fish in the Thousand Islands region alone (Ross, 1983).  Smallmouth bass, northern pike and muskellunge have traditionally lured sport fishers to the area.  Southern fish such as bowfins and long-nosed gar can also be observed in the river.  The mighty sturgeon has also been a fixture on the river, particularly Lake St. Francis where a large commercial fishery operated for many years before the decline of the sturgeon.  It is now a threatened species.

 

 Mammals

 

The Upper St. Lawrence has seen a considerable shift in mammal species since the arrival of Europeans during the 17th century.  Cougars, lynx, moose, martens, wolverines, black bears and timber wolves were all part of the Upper St. Lawrence landscape, however, with settlement, trapping and clearing the land these mammals disappeared from the area.  Today common mammals include: the white-tailed deer, snowshoe hare, coyote, red and grey squirrel, chipmunks.  Examples of rare animals in the area include the gray fox, which returned to the area in 1942 after a 300 year absence, and the occasional opossum has been sighted in the Thousand Islands (Ross, 1982).

 

Birds

 

The Upper St. Lawrence is host to many different bird types, in part due to its location on a migratory bird route.  The most identifiable bird on the Upper St. Lawrence is likely the blue heron, which is particularly prevalent among the thousand islands. 

 

More research will need to be conducted to identify examples of birds that are significant to the St. Lawrence River.  See the CHRS Natural Heritage Guidelines for a definition of significant.  A complete inventory of birds from Kingston to Brockville can be found at:

http://oliver_kilian.tripod.com/1000islands/species/tie_species_lists.htm

Information regarding birds east of Brockville can be found at the Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre:

http://nhic.mnr.gov.on.ca/nhic_.cfm

 

 

Reptile and Amphibians

 

The Upper St. Lawrence River, particularly the Thousand Islands region has one of the richest populations of reptiles and amphibians in Canada.  This area represents a ‘tension zone’ where many populations are at their southernmost or northernmost range.  A notable example of is black rat snake, Canada’s largest reptile and is also a threatened species.  

More research will need to be conducted to identify examples of reptiles and amphibians that are significant to the St. Lawrence River.  See the CHRS Natural Heritage Guidelines for a definition of significant.  A complete inventory of reptiles and amphibians from Kingston to Brockville can be found at:

http://oliver_kilian.tripod.com/1000islands/species/tie_species_lists.htm

Information regarding reptiles and amphibians east of Brockville can be found at the Ontario Natural Heritage Information Centre:

http://nhic.mnr.gov.on.ca/nhic_.cfm

 

 

6.1.2 Exceptionality

 

This section is intended to apply the CHRS guidelines for exceptionality to the plant categories found in section 5.1.1.  Exceptional examples of animal species must meet any of the following four qualities:

1)      Extent - the abundance of a plant community, as demonstrated in the number of plants, the areal extent of the community or its purity.

2)      Location - the unusual location of the plants relative to the normal distribution of the species in the eco-zone in which the river is located, due to localized soil or climatic conditions or climate change, including relict species.

3)      Dynamic – community dynamics such as rapidity of its change or slowness, or in the age of the plant specimens, measured in absolute terms or relative to those typical of the eco-zone.

4)      Diversity - the diversity of a plant community, reflected in the number of different species present or in the unusual association of particular species.

 

6.2 Rare Animal Species

 

This section follows a similar outline as section 6.1; however it deals only with animal species that are listed by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), or a similar provincial agency.   

 

Complete listing of COSEWIC species can be found at:

www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca.

 

St Lawrence Islands National Park has a list of COSEWIC species found in the park on its website:

http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/on/lawren/natcul/natcul3_e.asp

 

The MNR has a species at risk list available at:

http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/Species/index.html

 

The second element of this section addresses the rarity of the species according the COSEWIC (or similar provincial agency) listing.  COSEWIC has three categorizes for endangered species: endangered, threatened, and of special concern.  

 

 

 

7.0 – Conservation along the St. Lawrence

 

7.1 Health of the River

 

The St. Lawrence River has seen many changes since the arrival of Europeans.  It is therefore not surprising that human activities have taken a heavy toll on the health of the St. Lawrence River.  There are a number of environmental issues currently facing the river.  The flooding of the Seaway, invasive species, pollutants from higher up in the watershed and shoreline development have all affected natural heritage features of the river.  This section will explore some of the current environmental issues facing the river. 

 

Cornwall Area of Concern

 

An Area of Concern (AOC) is a location on the Great Lakes system that has experienced environmental degradation.  Under revisions to the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in 1987 between Canada and the US, a framework was setup to identify AOCs and subsequently restore those areas through a Remedial Action Plan (RAP).  Cornwall is the only Canadian AOC on the Upper St. Lawrence.  Decades of heavy industrial operations at Cornwall resulted in contaminants, such as mercury, being directly discharged into the St. Lawrence.  Mercury is of particular concern because of its potential to accumulate in aquatic organisms.  The river also received contamination from other sources, such as urban and rural surface runoff, atmospheric deposition, and sources upstream of Cornwall.

 

Environment Canada and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment have identifies three zones in the Cornwall AOC, which stretches from the Moses-Saunders Power Dam to Lake St. Francis.  A Remedial Action Plan, involving input from many groups, has been put in place to restore the ecosystem of Cornwall’s waterfront.  The RAP essentially calls for a process of natural recovery to place over time since there is no demonstrated environmental effect at the moment.  Natural recovery will not disturb the sediment allowing it to be covered over time with new sediment thereby avoiding dredging, which has the potential to stir up contaminated sediments.  Ongoing monitoring of the area will continue to assess the effectiveness of the RAP.  The RAP could change if future evidence is brought forward that warrants such a change.  Cornwall is not the only Area of Concern on the Upper St. Lawrence.  Across the river in Massena, NY, heavy industry over the past several decades has also taken its toll on the river.  

 

 

Earthy/Musty Tasting Water

 

Over the past decade people in communities along the St. Lawrence have noticed an earthy/musty taste to their water start to appear, particularly in the fall.  Scientists from the Cornwall based River Institute have conducted numerous to studies to determine the source of this odour.  The odour has been isolated to two compounds: 2-methylisoborneol and geosmin.  Their source, however, has remained somewhat of a mystery.  New research conducted by the River Institute suggests that zebra mussels and other benthic sources cause the odour. 

 

Changes to Water Level Regulation

 

Since the construction of the Moses-Saunders Power Dam, the water levels on the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario have been highly regulated in comparison to the river’s natural state.  Water levels were set over fifty years ago by the International Joint Commission to balance a number of factors, namely hydro-electric production, shipping and recreational boating.  The IJC has recently decided to update the water level regulation plan; however, this process has not been without controversy.  The IJC has a number of concerns to balance in their decision to pick one of the four plans that have been proposed.  The plan that has received the most public support is Plan B+, which calls for a wider range of the regulated water level to more closely mimic the river’s natural tendency to rise and fall.  Environmentalists point to the positive effect that Plan B+ will have on restoring wetlands, however, opponents claim that the plan will cause increased erosion to the south shore of Lake Ontario.  The IJC is set to decide which plan it will adopt in September 2008.     

 

 

Ballast Water and Invasive Species

 

Large ocean-going ships introducing invasive species to the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes ecosystem continues to be a problem even though the issue was brought to the forefront twenty years ago with the introduction of the zebra mussel.  Ballast water continues to be the number one path for invasive species to enter the river.  Currently 186 invasive species have been identified in the St. Lawrence/Great Lakes ecosystem.  Critics suggest that federal laws in both Canada and the US are too weak and do not fully address the problem.  Although the river has been able to adapt to these changes, the fear exists that it will soon reach a tipping point where a drastic alternation of the river’s ecosystem will occur. 

 

 

7.2 Conservation on the St. Lawrence River

 

Decades of unencumbered industrial use of the river, coupled with a growing population and development along the shores of the river has resulted in an environmentally degraded river system.  In recent years there has been a growing concern regarding the river’s health.  Starting in the 1970’s, governments began to react.  The result has been a growing awareness among the public that the St. Lawrence is not something that can be taken for granted like in years gone past.  Also evident is the realization that there is a connection between the river and other aquatic systems, the most prominent being the Great Lakes.  The St. Lawrence acts a choke point for all that enters and leaves the Great Lakes.

 

A number of governmental and non-governmental organizations are focused on the river’s health, either directly or indirectly.  St. Lawrence Islands National Park (SLINP) works closely with the public and other stakeholders to maintain the biological integrity of the Thousand Islands region.  SLINP is charged with taking care of several islands, many of which have been noted as Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest.  The St. Lawrence Parks Commission is a provincial agency that operates recreational parks along the Upper St. Lawrence, as well as a bird sanctuary near Cornwall.  Many municipalities and conservation authorities also operate public access parks and natural areas along the river.  

 

In addition to the many governmental organizations that have a role in conserving the natural heritage of the St. Lawrence, there are a number of non-governmental organizations as well.  The River Institute of Cornwall has taken a lead role studying various environmental aspects of the river, from invasive species to sediment contamination.  The UNESCO designated Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve is one organization that promotes sustainable living practices within biosphere region.  Additionally, each county that fronts the St. Lawrence River has a Stewardship Program run by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.  Each stewardship program takes an active role in cleaning up the environment within their region.  This in turn has a positive effect on the health of the St. Lawrence.  Another organization based out of the Clayton, NY is Save the River, which acts as a watchdog as well as a champion for the river.  Their current initiatives are aimed at promoting a more sustainable water level plan for the river as well as calling for tougher ballast water laws.

 

These organizations by no means make an exhaustive list.  There are many others on both sides of the border that have a role in keeping the river.  Perhaps even more promising is the active role that the general public is taking to ensure the river remains a viable cultural and natural resource.  Public concern has translated into government action on many fronts, for instance the province wide ban on the cosmetic use of pesticides announced in April, 2008 by the Province of Ontario. 

 

7.3 – Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest

 

Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest are officially designated areas of land that are representative geological or ecological features that are significant at either a provincial or regional level.  The Upper St. Lawrence has many ANSIs along its path.  For a complete listing see the ANSI document or the St. Lawrence Google Earth project. 

 

Dan Kingsbury

 


[1] Henderson. E.P. 1967. Surficial geology north of the St. Lawrence, Kingston to Prescott. In Guidebook: Geology of Parts of Eastern Ontario and Western Quebec.