Queen’s Library

Akenson, Donald. The Irish in Ontario: a study in rural history. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999.

• An excellent source for the history of Gananoque and greater Leeds and Grenville

Bell, Michael. Painters in a New Land. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1973.

o Contains various prints from 18^th and 19^th century artists who painted the Upper St. Lawrence

o Scanned images have been placed in the folder Painters in a New Land in Images

o (p. 100-101) H.S. The Long Sault and the canal on the St. Lawrence River near Cornwall, Canada West, 1849 (image)

o (p. 102) James Peachey, Encampment of Loyalists at Johnston, a New Settlement on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, June 6, 1784 (image)

o (p. 103) Henry Francis Ainslie, The steamer “Great Britain”, the largest vessel on Lake Ontario, 1839 (image)

o (p. 105) Henry Francis Ainslie Prescott, Upper Canada. The site of the “Battle of the Windmill”, 1839 (image)

o (p. 105) Anonymous, A militia encampment at Fort Wellington, Prescott, Ontario c. 1867 (image)

o (p. 108) Henry Francs Ainslie, Gananoque Mills, Upper Canada, 1839 (image)

o (p. 109) James Peachey, The ruins of Fort Frontenac, June 1783 (image)

o (p. 110-111) Henry Higgins Donatus O’Brien, Point Henry and Point Frederick from the infantry barracks at Kingston, Upper Canada, c. 1825 (image)

Burleigh, H.C. The Romance of Fort Frontenac, Kingston Ontario. Kingston: Mastercraft Printing and Graphics, 1979.

• An excellent source for a brief and interesting history of the Fort and surrounding area from its French inception well into the 1800’s and its use by the British in relation to Fort Henry

Couture, Yvon H. Les Algonquins. Val d’Or: Éditions Hyperborée, 1983.

• Among the first and most descriptive histories of the Algonquins people of the greater Algonquian language groups who shared the ancient hunting grounds of the Upper St. Lawrence with the Iroquois for a time and who displaced the Iroquois for a time in the 16^th century before the arrival of the Europeans and Beaver Wars of the 1630s which saw the return of the Iroquois for a short time
• (p. 46) During the 16^th century before the arrival of the European to what is now Ontario, the Algonquin and Mohawk (Iroquois) fought. The Algonquin displaced and filled the territory of the Upper St. Lawrence as the Iroquois moved to the south shores of the St. Lawrence in up-state New York

Creighton, Donald. The Empire of the St. Lawrence. Toronto: Macmillan, 1956.

• p.114 – 116 Constitutional Act of 1791 created the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Freehold land tenure was granted in Upper Canada which in effect, opened the gates for land grants and acquisitions of the Loyalists along the north shore of the Upper St. Lawrence
• p.116 rise of the new staple trade from fur to lumber
• p.118 merchant Thomas Clark on of the first to send a Durham boat down the St. Lawrence (1790s)
• at Kingston, first commercial capital of the province, Richard Cartwright and Robert Hamilton became the two biggest merchants of trans-shipping to and from Montreal
• p.121 in 1794, Cartwright estimated 12,823 bushels of wheat and 896 barrels of flour had been shipped from Kingston to Montreal whereas in 1801 the Kingston merchants shipped 13,963 barrels of flour and 350 bushels of wheat – due to fluctuating yields and demands of Britain and the domestic demands

DeZwaan, George. The little Birmingham on the St. Lawrence: an industrial and labour history of Gananoque. Kingston: Canadian Theses, 1987.

• A PhD thesis available at Queen’s library and archives, discusses the labour history of Ganaoque and the importance of the early factories in its rise and subsequent decline with the closures

Engelbrecht, William. Iroquoia: The Development of a Native World. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003.

• (p. 128) One theory relating to the disapperance of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians is that they were absorbed into Huron and eastern Iroquois nations in the lat 16^th century
• (p. 143) In the 16^th century, there was a gradual decline of Iroquois presence at the Eastern end of Lake Ontario and the head of the St. Lawrence – parallels the disappearance of the St. Lawrence Iroquoians and evidence suggest they were incorporated into the Huron confederacy at this time
• (p. 168) Hypothesizes that those St. Lawrence Iroquoians living on the south banks of the upper St. Lawrence may have been incorporated into Onondaga tribes and this may suggest why in the mid-18^th century, the Onondaga settled in Oswegatchie, the same area near what is now Ogdensburg

Eyles, Nick. Ontario Rocks: Three Billion Years of Environmental Change. Markham: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 2002.

• Ice sheets during the Pleistocene gouged out deep holes now filled by the Great Lakes (112)
• Layer I – The Canadian Shield, evident at the Frontenac Axis where the Cashel Peneplain rises to the surface. To the east of the Frontenac Axis, Layer II rock is no more than 500m thick. (pg. 119)
• The Canadian Shied became buried during the Cambrian Era 500 million years ago. (pg 119)
• When the super-continent of Rodinia broke up no later than 750 million ago, at which time parts of the shield surface (Cashel Peneplain) sagged downwards (approximately 500 ma) allowing the sea Iapetus Sea to inundate the Shield, creating broad shallow seas over Southern Ontario from the Cambrian era to the Devonian. (pg. 119 - 120).
• Rocks of the same age across Ontario vary in character as a result of variation in water depth created by the presence of bulges (arches) in the underlying surface of the Canadian Shield (pg 121)

· The breakup of Pangea effectively ended the rock record of Ontario because it resulted in widespread erosion and stripping of rock; henceforth deposition was limited relatively thin and much younger glacial sediments during the Pleistocne (164)

· The Great Lakes basins are cut deep into the bedrock. So deep in fact that Lake Ontario, Huron, Michigan and Superior reach well below sea level. They were cut out by glaciers no longer than 2.5 million years ago (221)

· The St. Lawrence Rift controls the trend of the modern day St. Lawrence River and may also extend westward below Lake Erie, accounting for a similar trend of the centre line of the basin, when compared with Lake Ontario.

· Some geologists have suggested that the St. Lawrence rift, which has generated magnitude 7 earthquakes in Quebec, may extend under Lake Ontario, creating the possibility that similar size quakes could occur in Eastern Ontario (pg 251)

Goerge-Kanentiio, Douglas M. Iroquois on Fire: A Voice From the Mohawk Nation. Westport: Praeger, 2006.

o Gives a history of the Mohawk of Akwesasne and St. Regis from a member of that community’s perspective

o Ch. 1 Origins, describes - through oral tradition - the ancestral migration of what would become the distinct entities of the Iroquois Six Nations in the region

o (p.4) Describes the oral legend of creation, the “Skywoman” epic and its relationship with the establishment of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy

o Ch.2 Akwesasne, describes the history of that area

§ (p.12) Algonkian had been there before the Mohawk

§ (p.13) Parish established in 1755, naming the community St. Regis. Akwesasne refers to the drumming sound made by partridges, which roosted on the white pines

§ (p.19) Cook and Gray, Mohawk “chiefs” act as interpreters without authority from the Mohawk of St. Regis, accept bribes from Albany officials and sign over Mohawk territory to Washington in the Seven Nations of Canada Treaty, 1796, (at NY) placing the Mohawk on the St. Regis reserve in the St. Lawrence

§ Imprecise survey of 45^th parallel had Akwesasne reservation in British territory, conflicting with British grants, thus an international border split the community and created factions in the war

§ (p.21) Most of Akwesasne maintained oath to the British crown in 1812 except those who had signed over their territory in 1796

§ (p.22) War of 1812 solidified the boundary split

§ (p.23) Post-fur trade, turned to logging, fishing, basketry, and farming, river guides through the St. Lawrence rapids in the summer

§ (p.25) Band council established by Canadian government, enforced by Mounties

§ (p.26) Astute smugglers and bootleggers during the prohibition days, 1920s

§ (p.27) Stories are told of executed Mohawks who failed to bribe border patrol and state police, bodies weighted down in the St. Lawrence

§ (p. 30) Coming of the Seaway and its effects

o Ch.5 Trade and Commerce

§ (p.61) Mohawk located towns and the shores of the St. Lawrence in order to monitor trade

§ (p.62) Lie in wait for fur traders (European and native) coming down the river from the west until le grand paix de montreal, 1701

o The second half of the book deals largely with the troubles of 1990 at Akwesasne and subsequently Oka. The author was a part of a group of Canadian Mohawk who defended a home in St. Regis against a corrupt “warrior” militia of Mohawk involved in illegal smuggling and gambling; this militia went on to Oka and were responsible for the death of a police officer

Gossage, Peter. Water in Canadian History: An Overview. Inquiry on Federal Water Policy Research Papers

• p.64 to bypass the Long Sault rapids, Cornwall Canal began in 1837 (disrupted by rebellion) and completed in 1843, a nine foot channel around the rapids
• 3 more further up in 1840’s known as the Williamsburg Canals

Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. V.15 Edited by Bruce G. Trigger. William C. Sturtevant, Gen. Ed. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1978.

• The seminal source for Native history in North America, this volume has a section on the St. Lawrence Lowlands Region
• Chapters of interest:
• William N. Fenton, Northern Iroquois Culture Patterns
• James A. Tuck, Northern Iroquois Prehistory – excellent analysis of the prehistory of the St. Lawrence, suggests that the mysterious St. Lawrence Iroquoians occupied the Upper St. Lawrence. Also describes subsistence of the prehistoric cultures and their territory and environment, and archaeological sites and their artefacts.
• Bruce G. Trigger, Early Iroquoian Contacts with Europeans – although this deals in most part with the French in Quebec, discusses French relations with Indians on the Upper St. Lawrence, including a failed Iroquoian ambush on a party of Frenchmen on the Upper St. Lawrence in 1633.
• Bruce G. Trigger and James F. Pendergast, Saint Lawrence Iroquoians – described in the accounts of Cartier in 1534-1536, these people who occupied what is now Montreal and Quebec had disappeared by the time of Champlain in 1608. However, it is suggested that these people had been in the Upper St. Lawrence region prior to European contact.

Johnson, Clifton. The Picturesque St. Lawrence. Toronto: Macmillan Co., 1910.

• A general history of the River, which includes interesting vignettes of the social setting of the Upper St. Lawrence in 1910, particularly the islands and rapids. Includes a variety of photographs. However, the majority of the book is devoted to the Lower St. Lawrence
• (p.22-25) Describes the events at Fort Frontenac; La Salle’s grant and control, small farming hamlet outside the walls, and the treacherous capture of Iroquois in the fort and the beginning of the Iroquois wars
• (p.32) Describes the Indians inhabitants of the Islands; unsure on his source, but states that the Algonquin and Iroquois used to hunt in this area in harmony, meeting each season to hunt in friendly competition, the losing tribe having to dress the spoils – the Iroquois most often killed less. Except one occasion, the Iroquois were successful, and the Algonquin, bitter, exacted an assault in revenge on the sleeping Iroquois, the root of the feud which was taking place at the time of the European arrival
• Describes the event of the lost channel in which a French flotilla was pursued into the channel by the British Onondaga and Mohawk but was ambushed when they entered the channel by the French. Following the skirmish, a boat was dispatched under Coxswain Terry but disappeared and was never seen again, the men lost
• (p.38) Describes rock paintings near Brockville done by Indians who honoured an episode in which two captured English officers were being conveyed to Montreal when a storm hit, forcing the Indians to throw the officers overboard to relieve the weight, but the Indians, including a great chief, were lost in the storm as well

Karrow, P. F., and Occhietti, S. 1989. Quaternary geology of the St. Lawrence Lowlands of Canada. In: "Quaternary geology of Canada and Greenland", Fulton, R. J., ed., Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, no. 1. pp. 319-389.

• Unlike most of Southern Ontario which is composed of exposed till usually from preconsolidated former ice loads in depths of 20m or greater, the Ottawa and upper and central St. Lawrence valleys are extensively mantled by marine clay and silt deposited by the Champlain Sea (pg 325).
• These deposits range in depth from 100m in the Ottawa Valley, to 30m in the St. Lawrence Valley cause considerable engineering problems (325)

Leavitt, Thad. W. H. History of Leeds and Grenville. Fascimilie Edition. Belleville: Mika Silk Screening Ltd., 1972.

• p.6 French post established at La Galette in the vicinity of Johnstown – first actual settlement in Leeds and Grenville – mentioned by Frontenac in 1684 as a stopping place during his visit up the river
• p.8 description of the battle of Chimney Island – fortress called Isle Royal constructed by M. le Chevalier de Levis, on Chimney Island. Amherst’s forces reached Point au Baril on 13^th of June, 1760, the French post built near Maitland for constructing ships and a wharf
• p.12 the Jones’ of Brockville carried on a extensive forwarding business conveying freight and passengers
• p.13 1830, passenger boat left Brockville every ten days
• p.17 first land grant of Upper Canada made to La Salle – Wolfe, Gage, and Amherst Islands and the land of Fort Frontenac
• p.18 first Loyalist settlers ascended the River into Upper Canada via bateaux in June of 1784 after drawing lots for land; p. 18 describes the type of initial housing etc.

Mackey, Frank. Steamboat Connections: Montreal to Upper Canada, 1815-1843. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000.

• The merger of the North West Company and Hudson’s Bay companies in 1820 had put an end to the fur trading route established along the St. Lawrence River (lower). The company would now use port to along the Pacific coast and Hudson’s Bay to trade with London; however, by this time trade in timber, potash and produce from the upper country had already been established (pg. 24)
• From the Canadian Courant (1822):

`the present travelling establishment on the route to Upper Canada, is highly worthy of notice; and the enterprise and laudable spirit of the proprietor (Horace Dickinson) cannot but be considered entitled to the patronage of the public. We are informed that the accommodations on that route are nearly equal to any in the U. States; upwards of sixty horses are employed; and the carriages are of the most substantial kind; besides the journey between Kingston and Montreal has that variety of land and water carriage so pleasing to travellers, affording that delightful changed of scene so much to be desired in a pleasure jaunt. From Montreal to Lachine passengers take the stage; from the latter place to the Cascades the Steam Boat Perseverance runs regularly, and is comfortably arranged for the accommodation of travellers. The voyage is a delightful one, and is performed very expeditiously. The stages is again taken at the Cascades to Coteau du Lac; from which place a passage is made in a commodious Team Boat across the Lake St. Francois to Cornwall at the rate of four miles and hour. From Cornwall to Prescott in the Stage. Whence the rest of the journey to Kingston is performed by the Steam Boat Charlotte.` (pg. 31-33)

· A Swedish traveller, Carl David Arfwedson, complained of the constant shifting from steamer to stage and vice versa on a trip from Prescott to Montreal in 1834. He noted, ``one of the most wearisome trips I had in Canada...It is to be hoped that the Canadians will remedy this evil, by building stronger and more suitable steamers, of sufficient power to work against the strong current. I must also add that they must improve stages and roads, which are really very indifferent.` (pg. 234 – taken from: Arfwedson, C.D. The United States and Canada in 1832, 1833 and 1834. 2 vols. London: Richard Bentley, 1834.)

· The Charlotte (built in Ernestown, now Bath) in 1817-1818 by Henry Gildersleeve at the same yard as the Frontenac. The Charlotte was 130 feet long by 18 feet wide. From the spring of 1818, she ran twice a week between Prescott and the Bay of Quinte. (pg. 33)

· The Dalhousie, partly owned by Horace Dickinson, joined the route in 1822 and made trips from Kingston to Prescott. She was a side-wheeler, 76 feet long, with a breadth of 31 feet, and a 4 foot draft of water (pg 34)

· Everyone of the early steamers was an experiment (pg. 36)

· The steamer Cornwall started operation in 1823 between Cornwall and Coteau (pg 38)

· Cholera epidemic of 1832 was carried up the st. L on jam packed immigrant ships. (pg. 52)

· The war of 1812 left hard feeling on both sides of the river, but the northern states had generally opposed it. In those days, when the waterways served as highways and before canals were built to redirect trade from the border areas to the Hudson River and NYC, the St. Lawrence was their lifeline as much as it was Canada’s. (pg 54)

· Prescott’s importance lay not in its size but in its location. Situated at the head of navigation for Durham boats and bateaux that came up the St. L from Montreal, it became an important forwarding trade post (pg 55)

· St. Lawrence Association founded in 1824 to conquer the rapids of the St. Lawrence and establish it has a trade route capable of a direct Great Lakes to Montreal route without the need to transfer vesicles at the rapids. Because a large scale lock system capable of holding large steamers was thought to be vulnerable to capture of destruction or capture by the Americans, it was not backed by the British Government and was left to be a colonial initiative. It never gained much support because of the cost. Interestingly, one failed idea was harnessing the power of the current against itself. Cables fastened at the head of the current would be tied to the paddlewheels of shallow-draft steam towboats. The current would turn the paddlewheels, causing them to wind the cables and the thus the boat would be cranked up the current. (pg. 83)

· The Ottawa-Rideau route cut heavily into the St. Lawrence trade for at least 10 years after its completion in 1831 (pg 109)

· First attempt to run the rapids from Dickinson’s Landing to Prescott was on Sept 24, 1831 by the Iroquois. Test runs throughout the fall led to the conclusion that the Iroquois was not up to the task. In 1832 with new engines, she was able to go up the rapids, however, she was only in service until 1835 (pg 116-117)

· The Rideau threatened Prescott`s pivotal trade role. A committee was established in Brockville in the fall of 1830, chaired by Jonas Jones, to push for legislative action on canal building and other improvements on the St. Lawrence. A public meeting in Brockville in Oct 1832 adopted a petition calling for the canalization of the St. Lawrence River. The petition had 820 names and was submitted in Nov 1832 to the legislature, which spurred the passage of a law on Feb 13, 1833 calling for the building of canals between Prescott and Lake St. Francis. They were to be made deep enough for vessels drawing 9 feet of water, 150`long and 55`feet wide. Construction was to begin in 1834 on the Cornwall Canal around Long Sault (pg 123)

· Insurance was one way in which St. Lawrence River forwarders could maintain their ground against Ottawa-Rideau interest. A court ruling in 1829-30 ruled that St. Lawrence River transporters were responsible for lost or damaged goods. On the other hand, the relative safety of the Rideau required that the transporters on that route were not required to take on insurance. The St. Lawrence «Inland Marine Assurance Company was formed in 1830. (pg 126)

· Early 1830`s was a period of one-upmanship between Brockville and Prescott, as interests in both towns sought to build ships to increase their trade with Montreal. The Brockville, which was bigger and more powerful that than the Iroquois, was launced in 1834. (pg 127)

· The Nonsuch was the first ship to go through the Rideau to Kingston, then down the St. Lawrence all the way to Lachine, but not up the St. L. (pg 139)

· The Ontario was the only ship to go from Prescott to Montreal in 1841 until the St. Lawrence Seaway was opened. This ship represent the last attempt at returning up the rapids, however, the ship never did make it up the rapids. (pg 167)

McCalla, Douglas. Planting the Province. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993.

Ch.2 The Loyalist Economy

• p.15 roughly 2/3’s of first Loyalists settled, by British policy, along the St. Lawrence from junction with Ottawa River to Bay of Quinte
• p.22 lumber, wheat and potash among most important exports of the economy along the St. Lawrence

Ch.4 Forest Products

• p.47 besides square timber, exports included deals (thick planks), barrel staves, boards, and pot and pearl ashes
• potash shipped in barrels
• **p.48 although the Ottawa trade is now much more celebrated, the majority of Upper Canada’s forest product exports passed down the St. Lawrence in every year before the early 1840s and well into the 40s equal to the timber flowing down the Ottawa – in other words, the St. Lawrence dominated in timber flow in the first half of the nineteenth century
• leading item by value in the St. Lawrence trade was typically pot and pear ashes – made by boiling hardwood house and field ashes to a salt (1820s – 1830s)
• squared oak timber (leading in 1825 and 1839), and oak in the form of barrel staves, white pine also important
• p.49 timber industry was not just a by-product of land-clearing, but an industry in its own right on the St. Lawrence
• p.51 a substantial proportion (at least half in the case of oak) of the wood-generated income on the St. Lawrence went to those who moved, rather than made, the timber – timber industry the largest single user of the schooner fleet
• p.54 52,000 pieces of white pine sent down the St. Lawrence in 1836

Ch.6 Artisans, Manufacturing, and the Economy

• p.95 Charles Jones’s Yonge Mills, near Brockville, could produce 200 barrels of flour every 24 hours
• at Yonge Mills, ten to fifteen men worked relatively full-time in peak months, but occasionally as many as twenty-five men were at work at the same time, and as few as five or six were employed at others

Ch.7 Transportation and Communications, 1800-1850

• p.117 system of government and private boats connected Kingston with Montreal
• Royal Engineers added a canal at the Cascades 1802-1806
• 1800, about 500 boats passed customs house at Coteau-du-Lac going to Upper Canada, 80% privately owned
• batteaux held 3 tons, Durham boats 8 – 30 tons of cargo
• p.119 steamship superseded sail for its speed, relative comfort and made it the main carrier of passengers, mail, imported goods – wheat, flour, pork, ashes, commodity trade by towing rafts, barges, and sailing vessels
• steamers extended the transportation system as far as Prescott, but Kingston remained the principal port of transhipment and a hub in the steamshipping system
• p.119-120 1831 four steamers serving Prescott-Kingston-York-Niagara run, 1833 five new vessels under construction, by mid-1830s daily scheduled service came to the principal ports which included Prescott and Kingston
• p.120 Prescott to Toronto run in 1836 (boom) earned 6,600 pounds, 3,800 of which came from passengers, freight 2,400, and small accounts including towing provided the rest
• p.124 even after the St. Lawrence canals were competed in the 1840’s, the wood trade continued to use rafts to transport down-river
• p.125 1834 began construction of Cornwall Canal
• p. 129 1853, still using barges and rafts despite advent of canals on St. Lawrence – of 41 registered, most belonged to Macpherson and Crane, sold to Holcomb and Henderson in this year – of these barges, 11 had been built in or after 1850 (post-completion of St. Lawrence canals
• p.130 Calvin Company’s continuing use of timber rafts

Occhietti, S. Quaternary geolgoyg of St. Lawrence Valley and adjacent Appalachian subregion. In: Chapter 4 of Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland. R.J. Fulton (ed). Ottawa: Geological Survey of Canada, 1989.

• Available in Stauffer Library, Documents. Call # CA1 MS33 89G01c.2

Preston, Richard A. (translator) and Leopold Lamontagne (editor). Royal Fort Frontenac. The Champlain Society: University of Toronto Press, 1958.

• An immense collection of primary documents – including letters, journals, memoirs, correspondences, expenses charts etc. from people such as Courcelles, Frontenac and Colbert, Vaudreuil, Denonville, and Montcalm – relation to Fort Frontenac with introduction and background history of the discussed topics.
• (p. 4) Includes the Quinte Mission – the mission established by the Recollects and Jesuits in Iroquois region of the Great Lakes – Father Simon LeMoyne ascended the Upper St. Lawrence in 1654 to Lake Ontario, the first to not take the Ottawa River route, and was followed soon after by Fathers Joseph Chaumont and Claude Dablon and in 1668 the Sulpicians Trouve and Fenelon passed by way of the St. Lawrence to establish the mission at Quinte
• Includes background information and history by chapters: The Establishment of Fort Frontenac, La Salle, War with the Iroquois, Re-establishment of Fort Frontenac, a Half Century of Uneasy Peace and the Fall of Fort Frontenac

• Describes the happenings of the Fort, warfare and trade, sparse settlement etc.
• (p. 470) The St. Lawrence was originally called the Catarqui
• (p. 471) Courcelles first to take bateau up the St. Lawrence, 1671
• (p. 476) La Gallette: small trading post established by the French at the head of the rapids on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, opposite the present Odgdensburg. There was a garrison there in 1728. Now Prescott.

Richman, Lisa A. St. Lawrence River Sediment Chemical Assessment, 1997, Cornwall, Ontario. Toronto: Ministry of the Environment, 1999.

• ISBN 0-7778-9064-X

• This paper summarizes the results of a study conducted to determine information for the development of a plan to address contaminated sediment at Cornwall.

· There were two objectives to the study: 1) to determine if the sediment located in the deposition zone approximately 1.4km from Domtar exceed the Provincial Quality Guideline severe effect level (SEL) and lowest effect level (LEL) 2) to update information of sediment downstream from the Courtaulds facility.

· Sediment was collected from 24 stations and were analysed for trace metals, phosphorus, % total organic carbon and particle size. All sediment samples collected along the Cornwall waterfront (north shore of the channel) exceeded the LEL from mercury and 46% exceeded the SEL. The highest concentrations of mercury were found downstream from the former Courtaulds Fibres Canada property. No stations on the south shore had mercury concentrations hight that the LEL, indicating that this area was not contaminated. The highest concentrations of mercury, lead, copper and zinc were all located in the zone downstream from the former Courtlands facility.

Ritchie, William Augustus. The Archaeology of New York State. Rev. Ed. Garden City, N.Y.: American Museum of Natural History, Natural History Press, 1969.

• Describes excavation work done in the 1950s and 60s which revealed two fluted point isolated finds near the St. Lawrence River in Jefferson County, N.Y.

• Rare evidence of Paleo-Indian Period in the St. Lawrence Region

Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994.

• A general and comprehensive history of the Iroquois of Central Canada and the United States with a brief description of origins, details of prehistory and events leading up to 2000
• Discusses territory and the Iroquois displacement of the Algonquian cultures, which included the Upper St. Lawrence, subsistence and lifestyle, diplomacy, warfare and evolution of the Five Nations
• (p. 2-4) Describes the origins of the Iroquois through the myth of Skywoman
• (p. 10-19) Archaeological origins of the Iroquois
• (p. 45) Describes the longhouses with a drawing of a longhouse at Fort Frontenac; native settlements were established alongside this trading post
• (p. 49) It was not until the 1500s that clear evidence supports the existence of Iroquois culture on the Upper St. Lawrence (the term Iroquois describes the cultural group that emerged in the 14^th century, differing from their predecessors, the Owasco culture of the Late Woodland Period, and its ancestors of the Archaic and Point Peninsula groups)
• Ch. 4 discusses the establishment and rise of the League of Iroquois nations
• (p. 75-76) Argues that the St. Lawrence Iroquoians were attacked and dispersed by the Hurons on the Upper St. Lawrence and by the Iroquois in Jefferson County by 1580 in order to dominate trade on the St. Lawrence – only left Algonquians with whom to contend (lack of evidence explaining St. Lawrence Iroquoians disappearance)
• (p. 91) 1622 Truce and 1624 Treaty between the Mohawk and Algonquian of the St. Lawrence, allowing trade to flow, but still monitored by the Indian allies
• (p. 119) Following the defeat of the Hurons and Neutrals, Senecas, Cayugas, and Oneidas began to establish permanent villages on the north side of Lake Ontario and as far East as the Thousand Islands, c. 1665
• However, by 1687, a coalition of Ottawas, Mississaugas (south-eastern Ojibwas) and refugee Hurons began attacking the Iroquois villages forcing them back into New York side of the lake. By 1696, the Mississuagas were well-established on the North shore of Lake Ontario and moving into the Thousand Islands as far East as Brockville
• (p 140) Akwesasne/St. Regis founded in 1747 by disaffected Mohawk from Caughnawaga (Khanawake) and remained pro-French and in 1748 Oswegatchie (present-day Ogdensburg) was founded comprised of mainly pro-French Onondagas
• The Mohawk at Akwesasne soon joined the French confederation of the Seven Indian Nations of Canada after the Oswegatchie broke up from the confederation
• (p. 151) Mohawk of Akwesasne signed a treaty at Albany in 1775 with the Americans
• (p. 156) 1796, New York made an agreement with the Seven Indian Nations of Canada (including Akwesasne) in which the Indians surrendered their claims beyond Akwesasne itself for an annual payment
• (p. 193) In the late 1800s and early 1900s many Mohawk from Akwesasne found work with the Canadian Bridge Company as high steel bridge workers such as the bridge being built then at Cornwall

Wright, J.V. Ontario Prehistory: an eleven-thousand-year archaeological outline. Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1972.

• This source provides a thorough outline of prehistory in Ontario and describes the prehistoric cultures of the St. Lawrence; an excellent introduction and overview
• Discusses such elements as artefacts, sites, culture, territory, subsistence, and trade
• (p. 27-33) Discusses the Laurentian culture which appeared in our area of interest around 4,000 B.C.E. during the Archaic period (5,000 – 1,000 B.C.E.)
• (p.41) The transition between the Archaic and Woodland Periods (c. 1,000 B.C.E.) is based on the introduction of pottery
• (p. 74) The Pickering culture of the Middle Woodland, named after a site discovered in the Pickering region, began to move northeast down the St. Lawrence around c. 1300 C.E., laying the cultural base for what would become the St. Lawrence Iroquois
• (p. 86-90) Describes the St. Lawrence Iroquois